"FREEDOM IS NEVER REALLY WON, YOU EARN IT AND WIN IT IN EVERY GENERATION."
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"There are those who say to you - we are rushing this issue of civil rights. I say we are 172 years late."
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March 2020
March 11, 1965: Reverend is Killed for Promoting Civil Rights
Reverend James Reeb was a minister in Boston who advocated for civil rights to end the violence and discrimination that Jim Crow Laws placed on African Americans. After state troopers and sheriff's deputies launched an attack on nonviolent demonstrators on Bloody Sunday, Reverend Reeb traveled to Selma to join protests to promote African American voting rights. Following the protests, Reverend Reeb and two other minister were attacked by white, pro-segregation supporters with clubs in response to their participation in protests. This attack resulted in Reverend Reed suffering major head injuries, ultimately leading to his death a few days following the attack. Due to the attackers affiliations with powerful segregationists, they were never punished for their actions. The violence of Selma, including the reports of Reeb’s death, shocked the nation into passing the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/james-reeb-murder-selma-solved
https://blackthen.com/%E2%80%8Bmarch-11-1965-rev-james-reeb-died/
March 10, 1863: Supreme Court Decides on Presidential Wartime Power in Prize Cases
On this day in 1863, the Supreme Court, led by Justice Roger Taney, decided on whether or not President Abraham Lincoln had acted under the scope his Presidential wartime powers allocated by Article II of the U.S. Constitution two years prior. Lincoln had ordered a blockade of the southern ports in 1861 in order to seize vessels headed toward confederate ports, a decision later retroactively ratified by Congress. Many argued that Lincoln was not acting within his wartime powers due to a formal declaration of war not being proclaimed. However, the Supreme Court ruled that the president was acting within his scope of power due to a state of civil war existing de facto after a firing on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. It ruled that the President has the power to combat actions made in opposition to the U.S. government “without waiting for Congress to baptize it with a name.”
For more information, please visit:
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/67/635/
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-1/the-prize-cases
March 5, 1770: 250th Anniversary of the Boston Massacre
On this day in 1770, many Americans began mobbing and protesting against British soldiers guarding the Customs House in Boston in order to rise against the British occupation of their city. Protesters began throwing snowballs and and other objects at the British troops in order to display their disapproval of the unfair taxes being imposed on the colonies. The British were ordered to fix their bayonets and began firing upon the protesters. Five men, including an African American man named Crispus Attucks, were killed as a result of these events. The soldiers were put in trial and charged with manslaughter in light of their actions. Many regard this day as the beginning of the American Revolutionary War as the Patriots united to fight against British rule.
For more information, please visit:
https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/tribute-mark-250th-anniversary-boston-massacre-69407475
https://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/massacre.html
March 3, 1991: Police Brutality in Los Angeles is Caught on Film, Resulting in Riots
On this day in 1991, evidence of police brutality occurring against Rodney King, an African-American man in Los Angeles, California was caught on film, resulting in the trial of four LAPD officers. The officers argued that they used necessary force against King, and were ultimately acquitted in state court. The video and subsequent trial initiated nationwide conversations on the topic of race and law enforcement in the United States, as many believed that the incident was racially motivated. King suffered from bruises, a broken leg, and a scar from receiving 50,000 bolt shocks from a stun gun. Instances of police brutality continue to occur in the U.S. to this day, most recently leading to the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement after 18-year-old Michael Brown was killed in 2014. Movements like this have led the charge in pushing for police to build better relationships with the communities that they serve, and encouraging ongoing conversation about how the racial inequities in our society may be mitigated or resolved.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/police-brutality-caught-on-video
https://www.npr.org/2017/04/26/524744989/when-la-erupted-in-anger-a-look-back-at-the-rodney-king-riots
March 2, 1807: Congress Votes to Ban Slave Importation
On this day in history, Congress voted to prohibit the importation of slaves from any country into the United States. This act was supported across the country with the single exception of South Carolina, the only state which had not yet abolished slave trade. The legislative act was promoted by President Thomas Jefferson, who in his State of the Union address denounced the international slave trade. However, this act did not prevent the continuation of slavery or the use of slave labor in the United States, as the children of slaves legally became slaves themselves. These children maintained the slave population and therefore lessened the need for the importation of new slaves from outside of the States. Furthermore, this act did not hinder the illegal trade of slaves into the United States through Florida and Texas. Even though the act passed in 1807, it did not take full effect until 1808, and was not strictly enforced following its enactment. It was not until the Civil War in 1865 that slavery would be abolished, and by that time there were nearly 12 million slaves in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/03/02/congress-votes-to-ban-slave-importation-march-2-1807-430820
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-abolishes-the-african-slave-trade
Reverend James Reeb was a minister in Boston who advocated for civil rights to end the violence and discrimination that Jim Crow Laws placed on African Americans. After state troopers and sheriff's deputies launched an attack on nonviolent demonstrators on Bloody Sunday, Reverend Reeb traveled to Selma to join protests to promote African American voting rights. Following the protests, Reverend Reeb and two other minister were attacked by white, pro-segregation supporters with clubs in response to their participation in protests. This attack resulted in Reverend Reed suffering major head injuries, ultimately leading to his death a few days following the attack. Due to the attackers affiliations with powerful segregationists, they were never punished for their actions. The violence of Selma, including the reports of Reeb’s death, shocked the nation into passing the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/james-reeb-murder-selma-solved
https://blackthen.com/%E2%80%8Bmarch-11-1965-rev-james-reeb-died/
March 10, 1863: Supreme Court Decides on Presidential Wartime Power in Prize Cases
On this day in 1863, the Supreme Court, led by Justice Roger Taney, decided on whether or not President Abraham Lincoln had acted under the scope his Presidential wartime powers allocated by Article II of the U.S. Constitution two years prior. Lincoln had ordered a blockade of the southern ports in 1861 in order to seize vessels headed toward confederate ports, a decision later retroactively ratified by Congress. Many argued that Lincoln was not acting within his wartime powers due to a formal declaration of war not being proclaimed. However, the Supreme Court ruled that the president was acting within his scope of power due to a state of civil war existing de facto after a firing on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. It ruled that the President has the power to combat actions made in opposition to the U.S. government “without waiting for Congress to baptize it with a name.”
For more information, please visit:
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/67/635/
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-1/the-prize-cases
March 5, 1770: 250th Anniversary of the Boston Massacre
On this day in 1770, many Americans began mobbing and protesting against British soldiers guarding the Customs House in Boston in order to rise against the British occupation of their city. Protesters began throwing snowballs and and other objects at the British troops in order to display their disapproval of the unfair taxes being imposed on the colonies. The British were ordered to fix their bayonets and began firing upon the protesters. Five men, including an African American man named Crispus Attucks, were killed as a result of these events. The soldiers were put in trial and charged with manslaughter in light of their actions. Many regard this day as the beginning of the American Revolutionary War as the Patriots united to fight against British rule.
For more information, please visit:
https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/tribute-mark-250th-anniversary-boston-massacre-69407475
https://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/massacre.html
March 3, 1991: Police Brutality in Los Angeles is Caught on Film, Resulting in Riots
On this day in 1991, evidence of police brutality occurring against Rodney King, an African-American man in Los Angeles, California was caught on film, resulting in the trial of four LAPD officers. The officers argued that they used necessary force against King, and were ultimately acquitted in state court. The video and subsequent trial initiated nationwide conversations on the topic of race and law enforcement in the United States, as many believed that the incident was racially motivated. King suffered from bruises, a broken leg, and a scar from receiving 50,000 bolt shocks from a stun gun. Instances of police brutality continue to occur in the U.S. to this day, most recently leading to the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement after 18-year-old Michael Brown was killed in 2014. Movements like this have led the charge in pushing for police to build better relationships with the communities that they serve, and encouraging ongoing conversation about how the racial inequities in our society may be mitigated or resolved.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/police-brutality-caught-on-video
https://www.npr.org/2017/04/26/524744989/when-la-erupted-in-anger-a-look-back-at-the-rodney-king-riots
March 2, 1807: Congress Votes to Ban Slave Importation
On this day in history, Congress voted to prohibit the importation of slaves from any country into the United States. This act was supported across the country with the single exception of South Carolina, the only state which had not yet abolished slave trade. The legislative act was promoted by President Thomas Jefferson, who in his State of the Union address denounced the international slave trade. However, this act did not prevent the continuation of slavery or the use of slave labor in the United States, as the children of slaves legally became slaves themselves. These children maintained the slave population and therefore lessened the need for the importation of new slaves from outside of the States. Furthermore, this act did not hinder the illegal trade of slaves into the United States through Florida and Texas. Even though the act passed in 1807, it did not take full effect until 1808, and was not strictly enforced following its enactment. It was not until the Civil War in 1865 that slavery would be abolished, and by that time there were nearly 12 million slaves in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/03/02/congress-votes-to-ban-slave-importation-march-2-1807-430820
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-abolishes-the-african-slave-trade
February 2020
February 27, 1988: Debi Thomas Became the First Black Athlete to Win a Winter Olympics Medal
On this day in 1988, Debi Thomas won the bronze medal for ladies’ singles in figure skating at the Winter Olympics in Calgary. Growing up, Thomas’ mother would drive her over 100 miles between school, work, and practice, to which Thomas credits most of her success. While attending Stanford University as a full-time pre-med student, Thomas also became the first African-American to hold a U.S. National title in ladies’ singles figure skating. She was inducted to the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2000.
Thomas went on to become an orthopedic surgeon after graduating from the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, however she moved frequently from clinic to clinic due to personal differences with other doctors. Thomas decided to start a private practice in Richlands, Virginia, but due to financial hardships she was forced to close her practice. She now resides with her fiance in southwest Virginia.
For more information, please visit:
https://theundefeated.com/whhw/debi-thomas-the-first-black-athlete-to-win-a-medal-in-the-winter-olympics/
https://face2faceafrica.com/article/the-rise-and-fall-of-debi-thomas-the-best-african-american-figure-skater
February 25, 1870: Hiram R. Revels Became the First Black U.S. Senator
On this day in 1870, Hiram R. Revels was elected to the U.S. Senate, making him the first black senator and first black Representative to serve in Congress. Revels was born to free parents in Fayetteville, North Carolina and attended school taught by a free black woman during a time when educating black children was illegal. In 1845, Revels was ordained as a minister and carried out religious work while educating fellow African Americans throughout the country. He played a pivotal role in recruiting two black regiments to fight in the Civil War after it broke out in 1861, and fought for African American rights to education after the war.
His work in the academic sphere ignited his involvement in politics, as he reluctantly entered the political realm and was elected to the position of Natchez alderman in 1868. Revels was hesitant to begin a career in politics as he feared its interference in his religious work and the racial divides in the country; however, people of all races were won over by his “moderate and passionate political opinions.” Revels was elected to the Senate in 1870, despite opposition from Senate Democrats and continued his promotion of African American civil rights and returned to serve the religious community in 1876 as well as holding the position of president of Alcorn University.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/political-figure/hiram-r-revels
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/reference/people/first-black-senator-extraordinary-life-hiram-revels/
February 20, 1895: Abolitionist Leader Frederick Douglass Passes Away
On this day in 1895, prominent abolitionist leader Frederick Douglass passed away from a massive heart attack on his way home from a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. Douglass is known for his role in the anti-slavery movement of the 19th century after obtaining identification papers from a free black seaman and moving to New York in 1938. During his childhood, Douglass began learning how to read and write from Sophia Auld, wife of Baltimore slaveholder Hugh Auld, who defied a ban on teaching slaves how to read and write. However, after Sophia was forbidden by her husband from giving Douglass more lessons, Douglass went on to learn from white children and others around the neighborhood. Reading mostly from The Columbian Orator, Douglass’ ideas about the opposition of slavery began to form as he started to learn more about the abolitionist movement and human rights.
Douglass used his knowledge to lead the abolitionist movement after moving to New York. He began fighting for justice and equal opportunity, not only for the abolitionist movement, but also for the women’s rights movement. Douglass became known as an “unyielding defender of women’s rights” and used the power of his words and writing to speak out at meetings and publish his writings in his newspaper, The North Star. In 1845, Douglass published his first autobiography, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, and many did not believe that a former slave could produce such an elegant work. Douglass became known for his eloquent speeches and went on to confer with President Abraham Lincoln and President Andrew Johnson on the treatment of black soldiers and black suffrage. Douglass remains one of the most well-known abolitionist leaders to this day.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.frederickdouglass.org/douglass_bio.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frederick-douglass/
February 19, 1942: Roosevelt Signs Executive Order to Detain Japanese Americans
On this day in history, President Roosevelt signed an executive order during WWII that has left lasting impacts on Japanese Americans. This order stated the removal of “resident enemy aliens” from areas in the West Coast. This order was a result of pressures from military and political advisors urging the President to address the nation’s fears of Japanese attacks after Pearl Harbor. The fear of the attack being targeted on the West Coast was to protect naval ports, commercial shipping, and agriculture. Regardless to citizenship, Japanese-Americans were detained in internment centers. This executive order authorized all people who were deemed a national security threat to be forced to move further inland after encouraging voluntary evacuation. It is estimated nearly 122,000 people were held in these internment camps, 70,000 of which were American citizens. The United States Supreme Court examined the constitutionality of this order and it was upheld on various occasions, until 1988 when President Reagan made a public apology to all Japanese American families who were impacted by this order.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fdr-signs-executive-order-9066
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=74
February 18, 1885: Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was Published
On this day in 1885, “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was published by Mark Twain, and was one of the first novels to be written in vernacular English. This book was known for its tackling of racism and the social hierarchy of the time, and was banned in many schools during the years after its publishing. Due to Twain’s confrontation of the problem of racial discrimination and slavery through “coarse” language, many felt that this book was inappropriate to be read. The book received backlash from all arenas in society as African American groups have criticized the novel for its “racist portrayal” of black characters even though it has often been seen as a criticism of racism and slavery. Some have also accused the book of increasing racial tensions in society due to its pointing out of the problems of racial discrimination that continue to be seen today. This book remains one of the most influential stories about racism, especially focusing on life in the antebellum South, and continues to be remarked as necessary reading material to be taught in schools across the country.
For more information, please visit:
https://marktwainhouse.org/2016/06/06/what-we-can-learn-from-huck-finn/
https://www.npr.org/2014/12/30/373834635/in-huckleberry-finn-a-history-in-echoes
February 13, 1923: The First All-Black Professional Basketball Team is Established
On this day in 1923, the New York Renaissance, founded in Harlem, became the first all-black professional African American owned basketball team. The “Rens”, owned by Robert “Bob” Douglas and later known as the “Big ‘R’ Five”, won the first Colored Basketball World Championships in 1924-1925 and went to dominate the basketball world for the next 25 years. During their 1932-1933 season, the Rens won 88 straight games in 86 days. In 1939, the Rens won the inaugural World Basketball of Professional Basketball and defeated the Oshkosh All Stars who had previously won the all-white National Basketball League championships. They have been dubbed “the greatest basketball team you’ve never heard of” and are known for their great strides toward dignity and equality for all people and especially in the basketball world. The success of the Rens also is said to have contributed to the integration of the NBA in 1950. The team was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1963.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackfives.org/new-york-rens/
https://cassiuslife.com/47905/harlem-rens-things-to-know/
February 12, 1999: Bill Clinton's Impeachment Trial Ends
On this day in history, former President Bill Clinton’s impeachment trial came to an end after a five-week trial period. Impeachment is the process of the legislative body charging a government official of a crime or misconduct against the state. Clinton's impeachment trial was sparked by a lawsuit filed by Paula Jones against the President for charges of sexual harassment. During her case she subpoenaed Monica Lewinsky, who was alleged to have an affair with Bill Clinton, and while Clinton later denied sexual misconduct, he admitted to an inappropriate relationship. The Senate voted to acquit President Clinton on the charges of lying under oath and obstruction of justice, although he eventually admitted to the affair.
Similarly, President Trump’s impeachment trial for relations with Russia during an election campaign recently came to an end. Like Clinton, President Trump was found guilty in the House of Representatives, but not in the Senate. The only other President in United States history to be impeached in the House was Andrew Johnson in 1868.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2009/02/bill-clintons-impeachment-trial-ends-feb-12-1999-018734
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/clinton-impeachment/senate-acquits-president-clinton/
February 11, 1990: Nelson Mandela Released from Prison After 27 Years
On this day in 1990, civil rights leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison in South Africa after being held for 27 years. Mandela lead the movement to end apartheid in South Africa and fought against the social injustices imposed upon black South Africans due to the institutionalized system of racial segregation and white supremacy practices. Mandela was a lawyer and became the deputy national president of the African National Congress in 1952. Inspired by the non-violent resistance practices of Mahatma Gandhi, Mandela sought to overcome the systems of oppression put in place against black South Africans. Through peaceful demonstrations and civil disobedience, Mandela led a powerful movement, and was released from prison by South African president F.W. de Klerk. The two men negotiated in order to set up a multiracial government and end apartheid thus resulting in their winning of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.
For more information, please visit:
https://apnews.com/7aa2aa4c5132da1676087cb6be48c9d0
https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/biography
February 10, 1989: Ronald Brown Becomes First African American to Lead Major Political Party
On this day in history, Ronald Brown became the first African American chosen to lead a major United States political party. Brown served as the deputy chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1989 until 1992. He became well known for his leadership and political knowledge through his career experience as the chief counsel for the Senate Judiciary Committee, and he was the first African American partner in one of the largest law firms in Washington D.C. His presence as a public figure eventually drew attention of future President Bill Clinton to confirm Brown as his Secretary of Commerce. His legacy inspired many African American leaders to break the racial barrier of politics and run for leadership positions within government.
For more information, please visit:
https://biography.yourdictionary.com/ronald-h-brown
https://www.ronbrown.org/section/about-us/ronald-h-brown-1941-1996
February 6, 1974: President Nixon Urges Congress to Approve a National Health Insurance Plan
On this day in history, President Richard Nixon proposed a comprehensive healthcare plan to Congress in order to provide all United States' citizens with adequate healthcare. He sought to replace Medicaid with a plan open to anyone who was ineligible for employee health insurance and those who could not afford coverage. Many believe that the United States would be very different today if this plan had passed. President Nixon's plan has since been compared to the Affordable Care Act proposed by President Obama in 2010, which sought to have employers provide a minimum set of benefits to most employees or pay employees enough to receive tax credit to buy insurance. These plans exemplify the United States' struggle to provide nationwide medical care to all Americans, a struggle which continues on today.
For more information, please visit:
https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/nixoncare-vs-obamacare-u-m-team-compares-rhetoric-reality-two-health-plans
https://www.livescience.com/51536-health-care-debates-political-opportunism.html
February 5, 1917: Immigration Act
On this day in history, Congress passed the Immigration Act which restricted immigration of certain groups based on the fact they were labeled as “undesirable”. This was specifically targeted toward any country close to Asia that the U.S. did not own, including British India, most of Southeastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Middle East. The only countries in the Asiatic Barred Zone that were excluded were Japan and the Philippines. This act forced immigrants to take a literacy test once they entered the country to show they were able to read either in English or their own language. The only exception to this test was if one was escaping religious persecution. Immigrants were then documented from their origin destination, physical descriptions, and where they resided once they were accepted into the United States. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the Immigration Act, but Congress overrode his veto by an overwhelming majority. Although this Immigration Act is no longer applicable, immigration around the world continues to be a topic surrounded by contention.
For more information, please visit:
http://library.uwb.edu/Static/USimmigration/1917_immigration_act.html
https://www.livescience.com/57756-1917-immigration-act-100th-anniversary.html
February 4, 1974: Patty Hearst Kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army
On this day in 1974, Patty Hearst, the granddaughter of the famous newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, was taken from her home in Berkeley, California at gunpoint and held as a “prisoner of war” by the leftist Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). This group committed acts of violence, including bank robberies and murders, in an effort to combat racism and capitalism in the United States. The SLA demanded that the Hearst Corporation provide millions of dollars’ worth of food for the less fortunate in exchange for Patty’s safe return, however, after $2 million of food was donated the group claimed this was not enough and demanded more. Then, in April, Patty Hearst was witnessed participating in two bank robberies in San Francisco and Los Angeles. She claimed that she freely joined the SLA and was later arrested in September for her crimes and set to stand trial.
During trial, Hearst argued that she was brainwashed by her kidnappers, although some were skeptical of this claim. She was convicted and spent 21 months in prison until her sentence was commuted by President Carter as her supporters argued that she was a victim of Stockholm Syndrome. Hearst’s story exemplifies one of the most recognized cases of Stockholm Syndrome, reflected by her feelings of sympathy for her captors. Patty Hearst was pardoned by President Clinton in 2001 and later married her bodyguard, Bernard Shaw, and wrote a memoir about her experience.
For more information, please visit:
https://time.com/4030514/patty-hearst-40-years/
https://www.biography.com/crime-figure/patty-hearst
February 3, 1949: The End of Union Membership As Precursor to Employment
On this day in history, the Supreme Court ruled in Lincoln Federal Labor Union v. Northwestern Iron and Metal Company that "closed shop" policies were unconstitutional. "Closed shop" refers to an employer policy to exclude potential hires either because they are not a member of a union, or they are not a member in good standing. The Supreme Court ruling stopped employers from requiring payment of union dues as a precursor to employment, stating that the right of workers to assemble and ensure that members follow the assembly's plans should not be mandated in order to get a job. This decision led to the enactment of the Taft-Hartley Act, which officially banned the closed shop policies prohibited by the Court. This ban placed emphasis on labor laws and the balance of power between labor and business entities.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/union-shop
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/749/lincoln-federal-labor-union-v-northwestern-iron-and-metal-co
On this day in 1988, Debi Thomas won the bronze medal for ladies’ singles in figure skating at the Winter Olympics in Calgary. Growing up, Thomas’ mother would drive her over 100 miles between school, work, and practice, to which Thomas credits most of her success. While attending Stanford University as a full-time pre-med student, Thomas also became the first African-American to hold a U.S. National title in ladies’ singles figure skating. She was inducted to the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2000.
Thomas went on to become an orthopedic surgeon after graduating from the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, however she moved frequently from clinic to clinic due to personal differences with other doctors. Thomas decided to start a private practice in Richlands, Virginia, but due to financial hardships she was forced to close her practice. She now resides with her fiance in southwest Virginia.
For more information, please visit:
https://theundefeated.com/whhw/debi-thomas-the-first-black-athlete-to-win-a-medal-in-the-winter-olympics/
https://face2faceafrica.com/article/the-rise-and-fall-of-debi-thomas-the-best-african-american-figure-skater
February 25, 1870: Hiram R. Revels Became the First Black U.S. Senator
On this day in 1870, Hiram R. Revels was elected to the U.S. Senate, making him the first black senator and first black Representative to serve in Congress. Revels was born to free parents in Fayetteville, North Carolina and attended school taught by a free black woman during a time when educating black children was illegal. In 1845, Revels was ordained as a minister and carried out religious work while educating fellow African Americans throughout the country. He played a pivotal role in recruiting two black regiments to fight in the Civil War after it broke out in 1861, and fought for African American rights to education after the war.
His work in the academic sphere ignited his involvement in politics, as he reluctantly entered the political realm and was elected to the position of Natchez alderman in 1868. Revels was hesitant to begin a career in politics as he feared its interference in his religious work and the racial divides in the country; however, people of all races were won over by his “moderate and passionate political opinions.” Revels was elected to the Senate in 1870, despite opposition from Senate Democrats and continued his promotion of African American civil rights and returned to serve the religious community in 1876 as well as holding the position of president of Alcorn University.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/political-figure/hiram-r-revels
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/reference/people/first-black-senator-extraordinary-life-hiram-revels/
February 20, 1895: Abolitionist Leader Frederick Douglass Passes Away
On this day in 1895, prominent abolitionist leader Frederick Douglass passed away from a massive heart attack on his way home from a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. Douglass is known for his role in the anti-slavery movement of the 19th century after obtaining identification papers from a free black seaman and moving to New York in 1938. During his childhood, Douglass began learning how to read and write from Sophia Auld, wife of Baltimore slaveholder Hugh Auld, who defied a ban on teaching slaves how to read and write. However, after Sophia was forbidden by her husband from giving Douglass more lessons, Douglass went on to learn from white children and others around the neighborhood. Reading mostly from The Columbian Orator, Douglass’ ideas about the opposition of slavery began to form as he started to learn more about the abolitionist movement and human rights.
Douglass used his knowledge to lead the abolitionist movement after moving to New York. He began fighting for justice and equal opportunity, not only for the abolitionist movement, but also for the women’s rights movement. Douglass became known as an “unyielding defender of women’s rights” and used the power of his words and writing to speak out at meetings and publish his writings in his newspaper, The North Star. In 1845, Douglass published his first autobiography, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, and many did not believe that a former slave could produce such an elegant work. Douglass became known for his eloquent speeches and went on to confer with President Abraham Lincoln and President Andrew Johnson on the treatment of black soldiers and black suffrage. Douglass remains one of the most well-known abolitionist leaders to this day.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.frederickdouglass.org/douglass_bio.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frederick-douglass/
February 19, 1942: Roosevelt Signs Executive Order to Detain Japanese Americans
On this day in history, President Roosevelt signed an executive order during WWII that has left lasting impacts on Japanese Americans. This order stated the removal of “resident enemy aliens” from areas in the West Coast. This order was a result of pressures from military and political advisors urging the President to address the nation’s fears of Japanese attacks after Pearl Harbor. The fear of the attack being targeted on the West Coast was to protect naval ports, commercial shipping, and agriculture. Regardless to citizenship, Japanese-Americans were detained in internment centers. This executive order authorized all people who were deemed a national security threat to be forced to move further inland after encouraging voluntary evacuation. It is estimated nearly 122,000 people were held in these internment camps, 70,000 of which were American citizens. The United States Supreme Court examined the constitutionality of this order and it was upheld on various occasions, until 1988 when President Reagan made a public apology to all Japanese American families who were impacted by this order.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fdr-signs-executive-order-9066
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=74
February 18, 1885: Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was Published
On this day in 1885, “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was published by Mark Twain, and was one of the first novels to be written in vernacular English. This book was known for its tackling of racism and the social hierarchy of the time, and was banned in many schools during the years after its publishing. Due to Twain’s confrontation of the problem of racial discrimination and slavery through “coarse” language, many felt that this book was inappropriate to be read. The book received backlash from all arenas in society as African American groups have criticized the novel for its “racist portrayal” of black characters even though it has often been seen as a criticism of racism and slavery. Some have also accused the book of increasing racial tensions in society due to its pointing out of the problems of racial discrimination that continue to be seen today. This book remains one of the most influential stories about racism, especially focusing on life in the antebellum South, and continues to be remarked as necessary reading material to be taught in schools across the country.
For more information, please visit:
https://marktwainhouse.org/2016/06/06/what-we-can-learn-from-huck-finn/
https://www.npr.org/2014/12/30/373834635/in-huckleberry-finn-a-history-in-echoes
February 13, 1923: The First All-Black Professional Basketball Team is Established
On this day in 1923, the New York Renaissance, founded in Harlem, became the first all-black professional African American owned basketball team. The “Rens”, owned by Robert “Bob” Douglas and later known as the “Big ‘R’ Five”, won the first Colored Basketball World Championships in 1924-1925 and went to dominate the basketball world for the next 25 years. During their 1932-1933 season, the Rens won 88 straight games in 86 days. In 1939, the Rens won the inaugural World Basketball of Professional Basketball and defeated the Oshkosh All Stars who had previously won the all-white National Basketball League championships. They have been dubbed “the greatest basketball team you’ve never heard of” and are known for their great strides toward dignity and equality for all people and especially in the basketball world. The success of the Rens also is said to have contributed to the integration of the NBA in 1950. The team was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1963.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackfives.org/new-york-rens/
https://cassiuslife.com/47905/harlem-rens-things-to-know/
February 12, 1999: Bill Clinton's Impeachment Trial Ends
On this day in history, former President Bill Clinton’s impeachment trial came to an end after a five-week trial period. Impeachment is the process of the legislative body charging a government official of a crime or misconduct against the state. Clinton's impeachment trial was sparked by a lawsuit filed by Paula Jones against the President for charges of sexual harassment. During her case she subpoenaed Monica Lewinsky, who was alleged to have an affair with Bill Clinton, and while Clinton later denied sexual misconduct, he admitted to an inappropriate relationship. The Senate voted to acquit President Clinton on the charges of lying under oath and obstruction of justice, although he eventually admitted to the affair.
Similarly, President Trump’s impeachment trial for relations with Russia during an election campaign recently came to an end. Like Clinton, President Trump was found guilty in the House of Representatives, but not in the Senate. The only other President in United States history to be impeached in the House was Andrew Johnson in 1868.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2009/02/bill-clintons-impeachment-trial-ends-feb-12-1999-018734
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/clinton-impeachment/senate-acquits-president-clinton/
February 11, 1990: Nelson Mandela Released from Prison After 27 Years
On this day in 1990, civil rights leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison in South Africa after being held for 27 years. Mandela lead the movement to end apartheid in South Africa and fought against the social injustices imposed upon black South Africans due to the institutionalized system of racial segregation and white supremacy practices. Mandela was a lawyer and became the deputy national president of the African National Congress in 1952. Inspired by the non-violent resistance practices of Mahatma Gandhi, Mandela sought to overcome the systems of oppression put in place against black South Africans. Through peaceful demonstrations and civil disobedience, Mandela led a powerful movement, and was released from prison by South African president F.W. de Klerk. The two men negotiated in order to set up a multiracial government and end apartheid thus resulting in their winning of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.
For more information, please visit:
https://apnews.com/7aa2aa4c5132da1676087cb6be48c9d0
https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/biography
February 10, 1989: Ronald Brown Becomes First African American to Lead Major Political Party
On this day in history, Ronald Brown became the first African American chosen to lead a major United States political party. Brown served as the deputy chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1989 until 1992. He became well known for his leadership and political knowledge through his career experience as the chief counsel for the Senate Judiciary Committee, and he was the first African American partner in one of the largest law firms in Washington D.C. His presence as a public figure eventually drew attention of future President Bill Clinton to confirm Brown as his Secretary of Commerce. His legacy inspired many African American leaders to break the racial barrier of politics and run for leadership positions within government.
For more information, please visit:
https://biography.yourdictionary.com/ronald-h-brown
https://www.ronbrown.org/section/about-us/ronald-h-brown-1941-1996
February 6, 1974: President Nixon Urges Congress to Approve a National Health Insurance Plan
On this day in history, President Richard Nixon proposed a comprehensive healthcare plan to Congress in order to provide all United States' citizens with adequate healthcare. He sought to replace Medicaid with a plan open to anyone who was ineligible for employee health insurance and those who could not afford coverage. Many believe that the United States would be very different today if this plan had passed. President Nixon's plan has since been compared to the Affordable Care Act proposed by President Obama in 2010, which sought to have employers provide a minimum set of benefits to most employees or pay employees enough to receive tax credit to buy insurance. These plans exemplify the United States' struggle to provide nationwide medical care to all Americans, a struggle which continues on today.
For more information, please visit:
https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/nixoncare-vs-obamacare-u-m-team-compares-rhetoric-reality-two-health-plans
https://www.livescience.com/51536-health-care-debates-political-opportunism.html
February 5, 1917: Immigration Act
On this day in history, Congress passed the Immigration Act which restricted immigration of certain groups based on the fact they were labeled as “undesirable”. This was specifically targeted toward any country close to Asia that the U.S. did not own, including British India, most of Southeastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Middle East. The only countries in the Asiatic Barred Zone that were excluded were Japan and the Philippines. This act forced immigrants to take a literacy test once they entered the country to show they were able to read either in English or their own language. The only exception to this test was if one was escaping religious persecution. Immigrants were then documented from their origin destination, physical descriptions, and where they resided once they were accepted into the United States. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the Immigration Act, but Congress overrode his veto by an overwhelming majority. Although this Immigration Act is no longer applicable, immigration around the world continues to be a topic surrounded by contention.
For more information, please visit:
http://library.uwb.edu/Static/USimmigration/1917_immigration_act.html
https://www.livescience.com/57756-1917-immigration-act-100th-anniversary.html
February 4, 1974: Patty Hearst Kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army
On this day in 1974, Patty Hearst, the granddaughter of the famous newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, was taken from her home in Berkeley, California at gunpoint and held as a “prisoner of war” by the leftist Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). This group committed acts of violence, including bank robberies and murders, in an effort to combat racism and capitalism in the United States. The SLA demanded that the Hearst Corporation provide millions of dollars’ worth of food for the less fortunate in exchange for Patty’s safe return, however, after $2 million of food was donated the group claimed this was not enough and demanded more. Then, in April, Patty Hearst was witnessed participating in two bank robberies in San Francisco and Los Angeles. She claimed that she freely joined the SLA and was later arrested in September for her crimes and set to stand trial.
During trial, Hearst argued that she was brainwashed by her kidnappers, although some were skeptical of this claim. She was convicted and spent 21 months in prison until her sentence was commuted by President Carter as her supporters argued that she was a victim of Stockholm Syndrome. Hearst’s story exemplifies one of the most recognized cases of Stockholm Syndrome, reflected by her feelings of sympathy for her captors. Patty Hearst was pardoned by President Clinton in 2001 and later married her bodyguard, Bernard Shaw, and wrote a memoir about her experience.
For more information, please visit:
https://time.com/4030514/patty-hearst-40-years/
https://www.biography.com/crime-figure/patty-hearst
February 3, 1949: The End of Union Membership As Precursor to Employment
On this day in history, the Supreme Court ruled in Lincoln Federal Labor Union v. Northwestern Iron and Metal Company that "closed shop" policies were unconstitutional. "Closed shop" refers to an employer policy to exclude potential hires either because they are not a member of a union, or they are not a member in good standing. The Supreme Court ruling stopped employers from requiring payment of union dues as a precursor to employment, stating that the right of workers to assemble and ensure that members follow the assembly's plans should not be mandated in order to get a job. This decision led to the enactment of the Taft-Hartley Act, which officially banned the closed shop policies prohibited by the Court. This ban placed emphasis on labor laws and the balance of power between labor and business entities.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/union-shop
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/749/lincoln-federal-labor-union-v-northwestern-iron-and-metal-co
January 2020
January 30, 1948: Mahatma Gandhi, Leader of India’s Independence Movement, is Assassinated
On January 30, 1948, the leader of India’s independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi, was assassinated by Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse. Gandhi was committed to India’s independence movement and protested British rule through non-violence and repeated hunger strikes. Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence inspired human rights movements all around the world, including the civil rights movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the United States. Gandhi’s practice of civil disobedience also inspired the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa led by Nelson Mandela.
Gandhi was subjected to imprisonment multiple times in his struggle against Britain’s oppression. He was known for his protest of Hindu-Muslim violence, resulting in hostilities from pro-Hindu extremists, like Godse. His protest against the British salt tax led to the 240-mile Salt March to the Arabian Sea prompting more than 60,000 Indian people to march in support of this movement. Gandhi’s leading of a simple life also inspired others to do so in order to reflect their commitment to their causes and his philosophies remain prominent to this day.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/activist/mahatma-gandhi
https://www.mkgandhi.org/africaneedsgandhi/biography.htm
January 29, 2002: George W. Bush Speech on 9/11
On this day in history, President George W. Bush gave the first Presidential speech regarding the attack on September 11th, 2001. He acknowledged the pressing issues of terrorism and development of weapons of mass destruction around the world. He also addressed his decision to send U.S. troops to the Middle East in order to find the leader of the Al-Qaeda terrorist group, Osama bin Laden, suspected of planning the attack.
This speech is known for the coined term “Axis of Evil” that designated countries that evoke terror tactics as a main threat. The specific powers that were addressed included North Korea, Iran, and Iraq that were believed to protect and aid terrorist groups. The aftermath of this speech can still be seen today in the international relations the United States has with these countries, as well as the war that began in Iraq irrespective to links of weapons of mass destruction being harbored there. Further, by addressing these countries as evil, diplomats feared the continuance of building weapons of mass destruction in retaliation to this speech.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.vox.com/2015/11/5/9675942/bush-axis-evil-speech
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bush-describes-iraq-iran-north-korea-as-axis-of-evil
January 27, 2010: President Obama's First State of the Union
On this day in history, the former President of the United States, Barack Obama, gave his first State of the Union address. The main goal he had for his presidential term was to stimulate economic growth through the development of more jobs. In doing so, he hoped to reduce the unemployment rate which was at a remarkably high 10%, while also trying to reverse the detrimental impact of the 2008 economic crash. The President wanted to focus on the hardest hit communities, which were rural areas and small towns. Today, the unemployment rate is around 4%, and the impact of the 2008 Economic Recession is seen as an event that sparked change for the American workforce.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.elitedaily.com/p/the-video-of-barack-obamas-first-state-of-the-union-is-so-ironic-7988135
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/01/12/remarks-president-barack-obama-%E2%80%93-prepared-delivery-state-union-address
January 22, 1973: Landmark Court Case on Abortion Rights
On this day in 1973, Roe v. Wade was a Supreme Court case passed by a 7-2 vote that legalized abortion within the first three months of pregnancy. This case was brought to the Supreme Court from a woman in Texas who was denied an abortion since it was not within the legal purpose to save her life. This Texas prohibition law, and other state laws around the United States were defined unconstitutional. This case set the precedent that woman had the constitutional right to receive an abortion under the 14th amendment. The constitution grants under the due process clause the right to privacy and places limitations on the state interference of a woman’s ability to receive an abortion. Although, abortion rights still remain a contentious issue where people debate the right to choose versus the right to life.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.subscriptlaw.com/blog/roe-v-wade
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/roe-v-wade
January 21, 1974: The Supreme Court Rules that Schools Cannot Force Pregnant Teachers to Take Long Leaves
On January 21, 1974 in a 7-to-2 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that pregnant teachers cannot be forced into extended mandatory maternity leave by public schools as it exemplifies a discriminatory practice and violates women’s rights. This case, Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, expressed discriminatory practices where women were forced to take leave and experienced delays in returning to work after giving birth. This created a financial burden on new mothers who wanted to start a family and also did not promise reemployment after a woman returned from maternity leave. Forced long leaves reflect illegal sex discrimination and the decision upholds women’s equal position in the workplace and ability to have a family while also being employed.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/10/14/she-was-a-teacher-she-got-pregnant.html
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/414/632
On January 30, 1948, the leader of India’s independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi, was assassinated by Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse. Gandhi was committed to India’s independence movement and protested British rule through non-violence and repeated hunger strikes. Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence inspired human rights movements all around the world, including the civil rights movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the United States. Gandhi’s practice of civil disobedience also inspired the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa led by Nelson Mandela.
Gandhi was subjected to imprisonment multiple times in his struggle against Britain’s oppression. He was known for his protest of Hindu-Muslim violence, resulting in hostilities from pro-Hindu extremists, like Godse. His protest against the British salt tax led to the 240-mile Salt March to the Arabian Sea prompting more than 60,000 Indian people to march in support of this movement. Gandhi’s leading of a simple life also inspired others to do so in order to reflect their commitment to their causes and his philosophies remain prominent to this day.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/activist/mahatma-gandhi
https://www.mkgandhi.org/africaneedsgandhi/biography.htm
January 29, 2002: George W. Bush Speech on 9/11
On this day in history, President George W. Bush gave the first Presidential speech regarding the attack on September 11th, 2001. He acknowledged the pressing issues of terrorism and development of weapons of mass destruction around the world. He also addressed his decision to send U.S. troops to the Middle East in order to find the leader of the Al-Qaeda terrorist group, Osama bin Laden, suspected of planning the attack.
This speech is known for the coined term “Axis of Evil” that designated countries that evoke terror tactics as a main threat. The specific powers that were addressed included North Korea, Iran, and Iraq that were believed to protect and aid terrorist groups. The aftermath of this speech can still be seen today in the international relations the United States has with these countries, as well as the war that began in Iraq irrespective to links of weapons of mass destruction being harbored there. Further, by addressing these countries as evil, diplomats feared the continuance of building weapons of mass destruction in retaliation to this speech.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.vox.com/2015/11/5/9675942/bush-axis-evil-speech
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bush-describes-iraq-iran-north-korea-as-axis-of-evil
January 27, 2010: President Obama's First State of the Union
On this day in history, the former President of the United States, Barack Obama, gave his first State of the Union address. The main goal he had for his presidential term was to stimulate economic growth through the development of more jobs. In doing so, he hoped to reduce the unemployment rate which was at a remarkably high 10%, while also trying to reverse the detrimental impact of the 2008 economic crash. The President wanted to focus on the hardest hit communities, which were rural areas and small towns. Today, the unemployment rate is around 4%, and the impact of the 2008 Economic Recession is seen as an event that sparked change for the American workforce.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.elitedaily.com/p/the-video-of-barack-obamas-first-state-of-the-union-is-so-ironic-7988135
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/01/12/remarks-president-barack-obama-%E2%80%93-prepared-delivery-state-union-address
January 22, 1973: Landmark Court Case on Abortion Rights
On this day in 1973, Roe v. Wade was a Supreme Court case passed by a 7-2 vote that legalized abortion within the first three months of pregnancy. This case was brought to the Supreme Court from a woman in Texas who was denied an abortion since it was not within the legal purpose to save her life. This Texas prohibition law, and other state laws around the United States were defined unconstitutional. This case set the precedent that woman had the constitutional right to receive an abortion under the 14th amendment. The constitution grants under the due process clause the right to privacy and places limitations on the state interference of a woman’s ability to receive an abortion. Although, abortion rights still remain a contentious issue where people debate the right to choose versus the right to life.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.subscriptlaw.com/blog/roe-v-wade
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/roe-v-wade
January 21, 1974: The Supreme Court Rules that Schools Cannot Force Pregnant Teachers to Take Long Leaves
On January 21, 1974 in a 7-to-2 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that pregnant teachers cannot be forced into extended mandatory maternity leave by public schools as it exemplifies a discriminatory practice and violates women’s rights. This case, Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, expressed discriminatory practices where women were forced to take leave and experienced delays in returning to work after giving birth. This created a financial burden on new mothers who wanted to start a family and also did not promise reemployment after a woman returned from maternity leave. Forced long leaves reflect illegal sex discrimination and the decision upholds women’s equal position in the workplace and ability to have a family while also being employed.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/10/14/she-was-a-teacher-she-got-pregnant.html
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/414/632
DECEMBER 2019
December 11, 1941: The United States Declares War on Germany and Italy Officially Entering WWII
On this day in history, the United States declared way on Germany. Congress unanimously agreed this was right the course of action. The Senate voted 88-0 and the House 393-0. This declaration came 3 days after the US declared war on Japan following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Germany under Adolf Hitler's leadership ordered the German Navy to sink American ships along with ships of Central and South American countries that joined alliance with the United States. This symbolized Germany's declaration of war on the United States whereby they dragged another superpower into one of the world’s most devastating wars.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2017/12/11/congress-declares-war-on-nazi-germany-and-italy-dec-11-1941-282980
https://www.historynet.com/hitler-declared-war-united-states.htm
December 5, 1955: The Montgomery Bus Boycotts Begin
On this day in history, the Montgomery Bus Boycott began lasting for two weeks. Just four days before the movement took off, Rosa Parks had been arrested. Mrs. Parks refused to give up her seat in the front of the bus for a white man. This incident gave the civil rights movement tremendous momentum. The protest was one of the first organized by pastor Martin Luther King, Jr. before he emerged as one of the most prominent leaders of American civil rights.
In 1955 segregated buses were widespread in Montgomery, Alabama. A city ordinance mandated African American riders to sit in the back and if they happened to sit in the front, they were required to yield their seat to white riders. Rosa Parks refused to yield her seat. There were no other seats left on the bus and she did not want to stand. This led to her arrest and a $14 fine. As news of the event spread, ministers and leaders began organizing a boycott across the greater Montgomery area. Martin Luther King Jr. was elected to lead the boycott. The boycott did not demand the changing of segregation laws but demanded respect and a first come first serve policy on the bus. Eventually the city of Montgomery complied with the protesters after the city’s case with the Supreme Court was shot down. The Court ruled that the segregation was in violation of the 14th amendment. This was a significant victory for the countless participants of a large movement and it propelled Martin Luther King Jr. into the spotlight.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/montgomery-bus-boycott
On this day in history, the United States declared way on Germany. Congress unanimously agreed this was right the course of action. The Senate voted 88-0 and the House 393-0. This declaration came 3 days after the US declared war on Japan following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Germany under Adolf Hitler's leadership ordered the German Navy to sink American ships along with ships of Central and South American countries that joined alliance with the United States. This symbolized Germany's declaration of war on the United States whereby they dragged another superpower into one of the world’s most devastating wars.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2017/12/11/congress-declares-war-on-nazi-germany-and-italy-dec-11-1941-282980
https://www.historynet.com/hitler-declared-war-united-states.htm
December 5, 1955: The Montgomery Bus Boycotts Begin
On this day in history, the Montgomery Bus Boycott began lasting for two weeks. Just four days before the movement took off, Rosa Parks had been arrested. Mrs. Parks refused to give up her seat in the front of the bus for a white man. This incident gave the civil rights movement tremendous momentum. The protest was one of the first organized by pastor Martin Luther King, Jr. before he emerged as one of the most prominent leaders of American civil rights.
In 1955 segregated buses were widespread in Montgomery, Alabama. A city ordinance mandated African American riders to sit in the back and if they happened to sit in the front, they were required to yield their seat to white riders. Rosa Parks refused to yield her seat. There were no other seats left on the bus and she did not want to stand. This led to her arrest and a $14 fine. As news of the event spread, ministers and leaders began organizing a boycott across the greater Montgomery area. Martin Luther King Jr. was elected to lead the boycott. The boycott did not demand the changing of segregation laws but demanded respect and a first come first serve policy on the bus. Eventually the city of Montgomery complied with the protesters after the city’s case with the Supreme Court was shot down. The Court ruled that the segregation was in violation of the 14th amendment. This was a significant victory for the countless participants of a large movement and it propelled Martin Luther King Jr. into the spotlight.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/montgomery-bus-boycott
NOVEMBER 2019
November 25, 1865: Mississippi Adopts the South’s First Black Codes
On this day in history, Mississippi adopted Black Codes after the end of the Civil War and the adoption of the 13th amendment. The Confederacy’s collapse struck Southerners with the reality of post emancipation America. In fear, elite white Southerners, who also ran state government, began to enact legislation that would keep some forms of slavery in place.
The Mississippi Black Code became the first law intended to preserve as many aspects of a slave society as possible. The laws restricted African Americans from working in agriculture and crushed any chance of economic mobility or freedom. Mississippi, like many Southern states, envisioned that the economic status of African Americans would remain inferior and that they as a people, could only obtain a second-class citizenship.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/black-code-mississippi-25-november-1865
https://www.facinghistory.org/reconstruction-era/mississippi-black-codes-1865
November 21, 1986: Investigations into the Iran – Contra Scandal Begins
On this day, the Justice Department began inquiry into the National Security Council scandal now known as the Iran – Contra scandal. The National Security Council (NSC) became involved in secret weapons transactions when the Reagan administration provided military aid to the “Contras,” a militia group attempting to destabilize the left-wing government rising to prominence in Central America. However, the American public opposed such funding and Congress passed a law banning it. The White House resorted to covert means to supply this funding to them. They used profits made by arms sales to Iran which was also illegal at the time due to an embargo and aid refusal in the war with Iraq. These profits, thus, illegally funneled money to the Contras. Throughout the years, both President Reagan and Vice President George Bush have declined any knowledge of the illegal trade breaches.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Contra-Affair
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/reagan-iran/
November 20, 1962: John F. Kennedy Bans Federally Funded Housing Discrimination
On this day in history, JFK issued an executive order preventing federally funded housing agencies from denying housing or funding on the bases of race, color or national origin. This piece of legislation went on to become Title VIII of the 1968 Civil Right Act. Refusal to sell or rent to any person due to their on race, color, religion, sex or national origin was outlawed.
Prior to JFK's executive order, for years, ethnic and racial minorities constantly faced racial bias from government backed agencies such as the Federal Housing Administration. The President called the continuous bias within housing agencies immoral and in violation the right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. The executive order is largely a symbolic act as it was still up to the state and local housing authorities to govern themselves. This left a lot of room for discretion and non-enforcement on the state level if they chose to do so.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/11/20/kennedy-order-bars-housing-bias-1962-1000423
November 19, 1998: President Bill Clinton’s Impeachment Hearings Commence.
On this day in history, the US House of Representatives commenced impeachment hearings for President Bill Clinton. The impeachment was brought on accusations of Clinton’s extramarital sexual relations, perjury, and the obstruction of justice in a civil case brought against him. The House of Representatives impeached Clinton in a 228 – 206 vote on the grounds of perjury and a 221 – 212 vote on the grounds of obstruction of justice. Although he is not one of the first presidents to be impeached, he was only the second president to be tried by the US senate. For the president to be removed from office by the Senate, it requires a two-thirds majority vote on any of the impeached charges brought against the president. In President Clinton’s case, however, there wasn't a majority consensus reached by the Senate meaning the president could stay in office for the remainder of his term.
The motives behind these impeachment hearings remain cloudy as it is believed that the House of Representatives, led by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, went forward with impeachment hearings for their own political motives. These hearings were a notoriously partisan affair with many believing that the intention of the hearings was to weaken the Democrats' position in the next election.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/dec/06/what-democrats-can-learn-from-newt-gingrich-the-man-who-broke-politics
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prosecuting-the-President-121815
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/elessons/the-impeachment-of-bill-clinton/
November 12, 1968. Epperson v. State of Arkansas Voids an Arkansas Law Banning the Teaching of Evolution in Schools
On this day in history, the US Supreme Court voided an Arkansas law banning the teaching of evolution in public schools. The Supreme Court decided that this law violated the First Amendment’s establishment clause as it gave favor to one religion over others. The case began when a biology teacher, Susan Epperson, was tasked with teaching from a new textbook that included information on the theory of evolution. Epperson feared that she would lose her job, she sought after a declaration that the Arkansas statute was void and that she would not be dismissed for teaching from this book. A chancery court in Arkansas ruled that the statute violated the Fourteenth Amendment. However, the Arkansas Supreme Court overturned this ruling deciding that it's within a state’s right to determine what should be omitted in a state public school curriculum. The case was then argued in front of the US Supreme Court which determined that this law was in fact biased in favor of one religion. The Court deemed that evolution wasn’t being taught in school specifically because it clashed with the belief of a certain religious group.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Epperson-v-State-of-Arkansas
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1968/7
November 8, 1966. Edward Brooke III Becomes the First African American Elected to the US Senate.
On this day in history, former Army officer Edward Brooke III was elected to the US Senate becoming the first African American to be join the Senate. Brooke initially ran for Massachusetts state legislation and after losing in the primaries, ran for state Attorney General. He prevailed twice, winning the elections in 1962 and 1964. He later vied for a US Senate seat, running on a Republican platform in 1966. During his time in Congress, he supported anti-poverty legislation, increasing the minimum wage and Medicare funding. Brooke also co-authored the 1968 Fair Housing Act. Brooke broke ranks with President Nixon regarding his second Supreme Court Justice nomination calling them a segregationist and being the first Republican to call out Nixon regarding the Watergate Scandal.
For more in formation, please visit:
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/brooke-edward-1919/
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-Brooke
November 7, 2005: President George W. Bush Defends US Interrogation Techniques Used in Secret Prisons
On this day in history, President George W. Bush defended the CIA interrogation techniques used to extract information from Al-Qaeda detainees. President Bush alleged that torture techniques were not being used at the secret prisons. in fact, Bush initially denied the existence of these prisons including Guantanamo Bay and reassured citizens across the US that they were extracting information in a humane fashion. However, the existence of these prisons was confirmed by former members of the CIA and furthermore, the existence of “Enhanced Interrogation Techniques” allegedly approved by President Bush were discovered. Some of the techniques used by the CIA such as waterboarding, sleep deprivation and simple physical violence are clear violations of human’s rights and in violation of an international prohibition against the use of torture in prisons. Bush continued to deny to any knowledge of these techniques until the day he left the White House.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/07/12/getting-away-torture/bush-administration-and-mistreatment-detainees
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/9956644/ns/us_news-security/t/bush-we-do-not-torture-terror-suspects/#.XcR6FDNKjIU
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644.html
November 6, 1860: Abraham Lincoln Elected President of the United States.
On this day in history, Abraham Lincoln was elected as the 16th president of the United States. He took office shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. Lincoln is widely considered as one of the greatest presidents of all time by both historians and citizens alike.
During the Civil War, Lincoln was criticized for suspending some aspects of civil liberties, most notably the right of habeas corpus. However, he strongly believed that such actions were necessary to defeat the pro-slavery forces in the South. His most notable accomplishment is the Emancipation Proclamation which gave the legal basis for freeing slaves in the rebellious states. Again however, this remains as one of his contentious acts as the Proclamation did not actively free any slaves but rather only served as a decree in writing. He later argued for the creation of the 13th amendment that would abolish and outlaw slavery. The amendment was eventually passed after his assassination.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/abraham-lincoln
November 5, 1968: Shirley Chisolm, First Elected African American Woman to Serve in The House of Representatives.
On this day in history, Shirly Chisolm of Brooklyn, New York became the first elected African American woman to serve in the US House of Representatives defeating incumbent James Farmer. Before she became a US Congresswoman, she was an active member in various organizations such as the NAACP. She represented her home district in New York State legislature as the state's second black legislator. During her time in Congress she was known as a strong liberal opposing weapons development and the war in Vietnam. She also founded the National Woman’s Political Caucus and supported the Equal Rights amendment. Chisholm fought for woman’s right over their own bodies as she legalized abortion laws throughout her career. She even ran as a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972 winning 152 delegates before withdrawing from the race. Representative Chisholm retired from her seat in congress in 1983.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirley-Chisholm
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/shirley-chisholm
November 4, 2008: Barrack Obama, Elected First African-American President of the United States
On this day is history, Barrack Hussein Obama defeated Arizona Senator John McCain for the 2008 presidential nomination. Obama’s nomination will go down as one of the most historic events in American history. A few decades earlier, politicians were running on a segregationist agenda and Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in the fight for civil rights. Not long after, Americans elected Obama as the first African-American President, creating a new hope for equality and race relations in the United States.
During his time in office, the incarceration rates for both African-American men and women dropped annually. They reached their lowest points in over 20 years. In addition, Obama also banned the use of solitary confinement on juveniles under federal custody. To this day, this protocol is in place.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackfacts.com/fact/2008-president-elect-barack-obamas-election-night-victory-speech-nov-4th-2008-0
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/10/14/progress-african-american-community-during-obama-administration
On this day in history, Mississippi adopted Black Codes after the end of the Civil War and the adoption of the 13th amendment. The Confederacy’s collapse struck Southerners with the reality of post emancipation America. In fear, elite white Southerners, who also ran state government, began to enact legislation that would keep some forms of slavery in place.
The Mississippi Black Code became the first law intended to preserve as many aspects of a slave society as possible. The laws restricted African Americans from working in agriculture and crushed any chance of economic mobility or freedom. Mississippi, like many Southern states, envisioned that the economic status of African Americans would remain inferior and that they as a people, could only obtain a second-class citizenship.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/black-code-mississippi-25-november-1865
https://www.facinghistory.org/reconstruction-era/mississippi-black-codes-1865
November 21, 1986: Investigations into the Iran – Contra Scandal Begins
On this day, the Justice Department began inquiry into the National Security Council scandal now known as the Iran – Contra scandal. The National Security Council (NSC) became involved in secret weapons transactions when the Reagan administration provided military aid to the “Contras,” a militia group attempting to destabilize the left-wing government rising to prominence in Central America. However, the American public opposed such funding and Congress passed a law banning it. The White House resorted to covert means to supply this funding to them. They used profits made by arms sales to Iran which was also illegal at the time due to an embargo and aid refusal in the war with Iraq. These profits, thus, illegally funneled money to the Contras. Throughout the years, both President Reagan and Vice President George Bush have declined any knowledge of the illegal trade breaches.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Contra-Affair
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/reagan-iran/
November 20, 1962: John F. Kennedy Bans Federally Funded Housing Discrimination
On this day in history, JFK issued an executive order preventing federally funded housing agencies from denying housing or funding on the bases of race, color or national origin. This piece of legislation went on to become Title VIII of the 1968 Civil Right Act. Refusal to sell or rent to any person due to their on race, color, religion, sex or national origin was outlawed.
Prior to JFK's executive order, for years, ethnic and racial minorities constantly faced racial bias from government backed agencies such as the Federal Housing Administration. The President called the continuous bias within housing agencies immoral and in violation the right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. The executive order is largely a symbolic act as it was still up to the state and local housing authorities to govern themselves. This left a lot of room for discretion and non-enforcement on the state level if they chose to do so.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/11/20/kennedy-order-bars-housing-bias-1962-1000423
November 19, 1998: President Bill Clinton’s Impeachment Hearings Commence.
On this day in history, the US House of Representatives commenced impeachment hearings for President Bill Clinton. The impeachment was brought on accusations of Clinton’s extramarital sexual relations, perjury, and the obstruction of justice in a civil case brought against him. The House of Representatives impeached Clinton in a 228 – 206 vote on the grounds of perjury and a 221 – 212 vote on the grounds of obstruction of justice. Although he is not one of the first presidents to be impeached, he was only the second president to be tried by the US senate. For the president to be removed from office by the Senate, it requires a two-thirds majority vote on any of the impeached charges brought against the president. In President Clinton’s case, however, there wasn't a majority consensus reached by the Senate meaning the president could stay in office for the remainder of his term.
The motives behind these impeachment hearings remain cloudy as it is believed that the House of Representatives, led by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, went forward with impeachment hearings for their own political motives. These hearings were a notoriously partisan affair with many believing that the intention of the hearings was to weaken the Democrats' position in the next election.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/dec/06/what-democrats-can-learn-from-newt-gingrich-the-man-who-broke-politics
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prosecuting-the-President-121815
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/elessons/the-impeachment-of-bill-clinton/
November 12, 1968. Epperson v. State of Arkansas Voids an Arkansas Law Banning the Teaching of Evolution in Schools
On this day in history, the US Supreme Court voided an Arkansas law banning the teaching of evolution in public schools. The Supreme Court decided that this law violated the First Amendment’s establishment clause as it gave favor to one religion over others. The case began when a biology teacher, Susan Epperson, was tasked with teaching from a new textbook that included information on the theory of evolution. Epperson feared that she would lose her job, she sought after a declaration that the Arkansas statute was void and that she would not be dismissed for teaching from this book. A chancery court in Arkansas ruled that the statute violated the Fourteenth Amendment. However, the Arkansas Supreme Court overturned this ruling deciding that it's within a state’s right to determine what should be omitted in a state public school curriculum. The case was then argued in front of the US Supreme Court which determined that this law was in fact biased in favor of one religion. The Court deemed that evolution wasn’t being taught in school specifically because it clashed with the belief of a certain religious group.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Epperson-v-State-of-Arkansas
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1968/7
November 8, 1966. Edward Brooke III Becomes the First African American Elected to the US Senate.
On this day in history, former Army officer Edward Brooke III was elected to the US Senate becoming the first African American to be join the Senate. Brooke initially ran for Massachusetts state legislation and after losing in the primaries, ran for state Attorney General. He prevailed twice, winning the elections in 1962 and 1964. He later vied for a US Senate seat, running on a Republican platform in 1966. During his time in Congress, he supported anti-poverty legislation, increasing the minimum wage and Medicare funding. Brooke also co-authored the 1968 Fair Housing Act. Brooke broke ranks with President Nixon regarding his second Supreme Court Justice nomination calling them a segregationist and being the first Republican to call out Nixon regarding the Watergate Scandal.
For more in formation, please visit:
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/brooke-edward-1919/
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-Brooke
November 7, 2005: President George W. Bush Defends US Interrogation Techniques Used in Secret Prisons
On this day in history, President George W. Bush defended the CIA interrogation techniques used to extract information from Al-Qaeda detainees. President Bush alleged that torture techniques were not being used at the secret prisons. in fact, Bush initially denied the existence of these prisons including Guantanamo Bay and reassured citizens across the US that they were extracting information in a humane fashion. However, the existence of these prisons was confirmed by former members of the CIA and furthermore, the existence of “Enhanced Interrogation Techniques” allegedly approved by President Bush were discovered. Some of the techniques used by the CIA such as waterboarding, sleep deprivation and simple physical violence are clear violations of human’s rights and in violation of an international prohibition against the use of torture in prisons. Bush continued to deny to any knowledge of these techniques until the day he left the White House.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/07/12/getting-away-torture/bush-administration-and-mistreatment-detainees
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/9956644/ns/us_news-security/t/bush-we-do-not-torture-terror-suspects/#.XcR6FDNKjIU
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644.html
November 6, 1860: Abraham Lincoln Elected President of the United States.
On this day in history, Abraham Lincoln was elected as the 16th president of the United States. He took office shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. Lincoln is widely considered as one of the greatest presidents of all time by both historians and citizens alike.
During the Civil War, Lincoln was criticized for suspending some aspects of civil liberties, most notably the right of habeas corpus. However, he strongly believed that such actions were necessary to defeat the pro-slavery forces in the South. His most notable accomplishment is the Emancipation Proclamation which gave the legal basis for freeing slaves in the rebellious states. Again however, this remains as one of his contentious acts as the Proclamation did not actively free any slaves but rather only served as a decree in writing. He later argued for the creation of the 13th amendment that would abolish and outlaw slavery. The amendment was eventually passed after his assassination.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/abraham-lincoln
November 5, 1968: Shirley Chisolm, First Elected African American Woman to Serve in The House of Representatives.
On this day in history, Shirly Chisolm of Brooklyn, New York became the first elected African American woman to serve in the US House of Representatives defeating incumbent James Farmer. Before she became a US Congresswoman, she was an active member in various organizations such as the NAACP. She represented her home district in New York State legislature as the state's second black legislator. During her time in Congress she was known as a strong liberal opposing weapons development and the war in Vietnam. She also founded the National Woman’s Political Caucus and supported the Equal Rights amendment. Chisholm fought for woman’s right over their own bodies as she legalized abortion laws throughout her career. She even ran as a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972 winning 152 delegates before withdrawing from the race. Representative Chisholm retired from her seat in congress in 1983.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shirley-Chisholm
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/shirley-chisholm
November 4, 2008: Barrack Obama, Elected First African-American President of the United States
On this day is history, Barrack Hussein Obama defeated Arizona Senator John McCain for the 2008 presidential nomination. Obama’s nomination will go down as one of the most historic events in American history. A few decades earlier, politicians were running on a segregationist agenda and Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in the fight for civil rights. Not long after, Americans elected Obama as the first African-American President, creating a new hope for equality and race relations in the United States.
During his time in office, the incarceration rates for both African-American men and women dropped annually. They reached their lowest points in over 20 years. In addition, Obama also banned the use of solitary confinement on juveniles under federal custody. To this day, this protocol is in place.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackfacts.com/fact/2008-president-elect-barack-obamas-election-night-victory-speech-nov-4th-2008-0
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/10/14/progress-african-american-community-during-obama-administration
OCTOBER 2019
October 30, 1967: Martin Luther King Jr. Is Arrested
On this day, Dr. King and Rev. Abernathy unsuccessfully appealed against a contempt of court conviction. Their arrest came as result of their protests against segregation in Alabama years prior to that. In 1963, civil rights protests overwhelmed the city in Birmingham, Alabama. White segregationists along with law enforcement reacted by inflicting violence on protest participants. Shortly after, an Alabama state judge invoked an injunction that banned all anti-segregation protests.
As a result, Dr. King and Rev. Ralph Abernathy responded by defying the decision and organized a protest against the injunction. Due to their resistance, they were arrested and put in jail. Both posted bail and were released. However, albeit posting bail, they were still convicted. They appealed and the Supreme Court upheld the conviction, returning them back to Birmingham jail where protests erupted.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/oct/30
http://www.thekinglegacy.org/content/king-years
October 29, 1969: The Supreme Court Orders the Immediate Desegregation of Southern Schools
On this day in history, the Supreme Court decided on Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education ordering that every remaining segregated school in the South must immediately desegregate. Although the Supreme Court demanded the desegregation of schools in the famous 1955 Brown v. Board of Education II, the phrase “with all deliberate speed” was taken literally by school districts in the south. This case was brought up by Beatrice Alexander, on behalf, of her children. The Court underlined and emphasized each school district's obligation to create racially desegregated environments for children across the states.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.colorlines.com/articles/tbt-supreme-court-orders-immediate-desegregation-public-schools
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1969/632
October 24, 1929: The Events of Black Thursday Crash the Stock Market
On this day in history, panicked investors crashed the DOW sending it down 11 percent by selling and abandoning large amounts of stocks and investments. This panic arose when the day before, the DOW dropped 4.6 percent. This culminated in further drops in the market which fell as low as 41.22 on July 8th, 1932. Compared to the peaks in the Roaring Twenties, the DOW had plummeted by 90%. This loss of faith in the market, along with the dramatic fall, led to the era of serious economic upheaval in the US known as the Great depression. The Great Depression affected much of the western world and caused vast amounts of suffering.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blackthursday.asp
October 23, 1947: The NAACP Appeals to the World
On this day in 1947, the NAACP drafted a petition to the United Nation under the title “An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of Citizens of the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress”. In its appeal, the NAACP urged the UN to act on human rights violations such as lynching, segregation and socio-economic inequalities. It addressed voting, education, housing and healthcare disparities. The document was an important reflection of the hypocrisy of the United State as a promoter of liberty and equality. After returning home, many Africans Americans who served in WW2 were lynched by white mobs and denied equal rights. This document served as a petition to the hypocritical stance of the US and exposed the discriminatory practices and human rights violations to the world. The United Nations ultimately ignored the report and activists continued their fight without external help.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/appeal-world-un/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/oct/23
October 22, 1962: JFK’s Address on Cuban Missile Crisis Shocks the Nation
On this day in 1962, President John F. Kennedy announced to the nation that spy planes have detected the construction of Soviet medium range nuclear missile sites. These missiles were rumored to be capable of hitting many major U.S. cities. Although the Cuban Missile Crisis had started a few days prior, JFK’s decision to announce it to the nation put millions on edge, fearing the beginning of a nuclear war. This crisis forced the US to delicately dance around international issues and give in to the demands of Cuba’s allies, the USSR. The USSR promised to send the missiles in Cuba back to the USSR but in return, the US must pull their missiles out of Turkey. The USSR insisted that the US lowers its military influence in that region. Although the Crisis ended with the US’s supposed victory, it was a major victory for Cuba who found a new sense of security and for the USSR, who reached nuclear parity with the US.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Cuban-missile-crisis
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
October 21, 1955: Mary Louise Smith Arrested for Breaking Segregation Laws
On this day, Mary Louise Smith was arrested after refusing to give up her city line bus seat to a white passenger. Smith was one of the several women arrested for ignoring segregation laws prior to the Rosa Parks incident that sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Marie Louise Smith was an important civil rights activist and involved in a federal civil suit with 4 other women, Browder v. Gayle, where they challenged the constitutionality of bus segregation laws both on the state and local levels. Their activism proved vital as a 3-judge panel from the United States District Court ruled that these segregation laws were unconstitutional. The case went to the Supreme Court and was upheld. Her arrest, leading to the inspiration for further activism, boycotts and legal mobilization, led to the Supreme Court's order for Alabama to desegregate all of its buses.
For more more information, please visit:
https://blackthen.com/%E2%80%8Boctober-21-1955-mary-louise-smith-is-arrested-on-a-city-line-bus/
October 17, 1972: Congress Passes the Clean Water Act:
On this day, the Clean Water Act, originally known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, was passed by Congress granting the EPA more federal power to properly regulate, restore and maintain clean and healthy water. This act responded to growing public interest in environmentalism and calls to ensure that the nation’s bodies of waters are kept clean.
The act sets minimum standards for waste discharges for each industry and enacted policies for specific issues like oil spills. While the Act itself garnered a lot of public support and a near unanimous support from the left, it sparked some partisan conflict as President Nixon attempted to veto the bill multiple times.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.eenews.net/stories/1059971457
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Clean-Water-Act
https://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/clean-water-act.html
October 16, 1859: John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry
On this day in 1859, radical abolitionist John Brown attempted to start an armed slave revolt by taking over a U.S arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He sought to inspire similar events in the Southern States in hopes of it ultimately leading to the emancipation of all slaves.Brown led a small group of 22 into the raid and was stopped and defeated the next morning by Colonel Robert E. Lee and Lieutenant J.E.B. Stuart. Brown was tried in Virginia and found guilty for treason and murder, and sentenced to death.
Although the raid was not successful, Brown’s actions were important because they sparked social tension and inflicted pressure on the 1860 presidential race. Furthermore, Brown’s actions also eliminated chances of accommodation between the North and South. Today, it is considered as one of the important events that led to the United States Civil War.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry
October 15, 1966: The Black Panther Party is Established
On this day in history, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale established the Black Panther Party, an African American revolutionary, socialist political group in Oakland, California. The initial purpose of the party was to patrol neighborhoods and to stay vigilant for instances of police brutality.
The Black Panther Party practiced a nuanced approach when selecting its allies. As an organization, they did not believe that all white people should be classified as oppressors. They also knew that the rich African American capitalists could be capable of participating in the systemic oppression of the African American working class. The Blank Panther Party taught that economic exploitation is the root of all the oppression around the world and that the solution to oppression is abolishing capitalism. During this era, socialist movements were inching to become mainstream and this was a scare to may politicians in the U.S. The Black Panther's growing popularity and its alignment with other socialist movements outside the U.S. placed the party right in the cross hairs of the FBI. In 1969, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover claimed that the Black Panther Party was the biggest internal threat to the U.S.
Besides challenging police brutality, the Black Panthers provided various social services to poor communities. Services such as education, tuberculosis testing and legal aid became available throughout different neighborhoods. Despite these various services, the US government still saw the Black Panthers as a threat. The group continued operations until the late 70’s and early 80’s when all activities seemed to come to an end.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Panther-Party
https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-movement/black-panthers
October 14, 2019: The War on Drugs and its Disproportionate Effects on People of Color
On this Day in 1982, Ronald Reagan declared a “War on Drugs.” He reinforced the term that dates back to the Nixon administration, claiming that illicit substances pose a threat to U.S. national security.The mainstream media joined the initiative and reinforced racial stereotypes by sensationalizing the use of crack-cocaine in black neighborhoods while turning a blind eye to powder cocaine used among whites. The media facilitated a hysteria surrounding the use of crack which translated in to a harsh law and order approach to substance use.
As a result of this approach, prison populations soared and law enforcement targeted African Americans at much higher rates than whites despite the similar rates of drug use between the two groups. African Americans are four times more likely to get arrested for a marijuana charge than whites. They make up 30 percent of all drug related charges, even though they only constitute 12.5 percent of the population that is substance-dependent. Due to the punitive policies and racial targeting, people of color constitute around 80 percent of people in federal prison and 60 percent of those in state prison. Policies like these have further reinforced racial stereotypes and increased chances of recidivism for people of color through disenfranchisement and the lack of opportunities for re-entry.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/reports/2018/06/27/452819/ending-war-drugs-numbers/
https://timeline.com/ronald-nancy-reagan-war-on-drugs-crack-baby-just-say-no-cia-communism-racial-injustice-fcfeadb3548d
https://www.onthisday.com/day/october/14
October 11, 1991: Anita Hill Testifies at Clarence Thomas’ Confirmation Hearing
On this day in history, Anita Hill, an American attorney and former educator, gained nationwide notoriety when she testified at the confirmation hearing for Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas. Hill, who earned her law degree from Yale in 1980, worked as a legal adviser for Thomas in 1981. During her tenure there, she claimed that Thomas made numerous sexual advances. His misconduct included frequently talking about sex and repeatedly asking her out on dates. When Thomas became chair of the EEOC she followed but the harassment didn’t stop there. Hill left in 1983 deciding that she could no longer work in that type of work environment . In 1991, president George H.W. Bush nominated Thomas to the court. Hill went before the Senate Judiciary Committee to testify against his nomination. The hearing was televised sending the media and the nation into an uproar. Many believed that Hill was lying just to be in the spotlight, but many were appalled by the sexist and demeaning treatment she endured. The vote was close, and the Thomas nomination was narrowly passed with a vote of 52-48.
Although Hill went through much scrutiny, this event encouraged many women to enter politics with the number of seats increasing in both the Senate to the House.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anita-Hill
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/17/us/anita-hill-women-power.html
October 10th, 1973: Vice-president Spiro T. Agnew Resigns
On this day in history Vice-President Spiro T. Agnew resigns from office after he was found guilty on one count of federal income tax invasion. However, at the time of his resignation, he was being investigated for accusations of other crimes such as extortion and bribery during his time as Governor of Maryland. Agnew at first vowed to fight these allegations and did not plan to resign. However, President Richard Nixon was also undergoing investigations in regards to the Watergate scandal putting more pressure on the White House to remove Agnew from the line of succession in case Nixon was to be impeached. So Agnew's team conceded, negotiating secret plea deals with a federal judge to avoid any major convictions.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Spiro-Agnew
https://www.britannica.com/event/Watergate-Scandal/Pardon-and-aftermath
October 9, 2012: Malala Yousafzai Survives Attempted Assassination
On this day in 2012, Malala was shot in the head by Taliban gunmen. She was shot after receiving multiple death threats because of her stance for girls' right of education. Her advocacy had become more pronounced after the Taliban threatened to close schools for girls. As a result, the Taliban targeted her. Malala survived the gunshot and continued to be a champion of equal rights and opportunities for girls. Only 9 months after she was shot, at 16 years old, she gave a speech in front of the U.N. where she emphasized the importance of women’s education and pressuring the world to shift both their perspectives and their policies.
In 2013, she was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. In 2014, she became the youngest person at 17 to win the Nobel Peace Prize. Furthermore, Malala was appointed as the U.N. Messenger of Peace to promote women's education by U.N Secretary General Antonio Guterres.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/activist/malala-yousafzai
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24379018
October 8, 2017: Harvey Weinstein Fired from the Weinstein Company
Harvey Weinstein, one of the most famous Hollywood producers of this generation, was fired from the Weinstein Company amid allegations of sexual harassment. These allegations go back decades and spotlight the problematic power dynamics and abuses of power in Hollywood. Over 30 women came out and spoke on their experiences with the producer. The abuse of power didn’t stop with Weinstein as many actors and actresses in Hollywood spoke up about their experiences and opened the floodgates to more allegations. This sparked the beginning of the #MeToo movement where people across many different industries were given the platform and the support to speak on their experiences. The trauma these women experienced was despicable. However, this whole saga began to change the way victims of sexual harassment and abuse were seen by the public. Instead of attacking these victims and ignoring what they say, as a society, we finally started to listen.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/10/16/me-too-alyssa-milano-urged-assault-victims-to-tweet-in-solidarity-the-response-was-massive/
https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-41594672
October 7, 2001: The Start of the War in Afghanistan
On this day in 2001, the United States launched airstrikes on Afghanistan, prompting its invasion and the longest war in US history. The attacks were in response to Al Qaeda’s September 11 attacks that killed nearly 3000 people in the United States. The attacks also ensued from the Taliban refusing to hand over al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden.
With the Taliban now dismantled and Bin Laden assassinated, Afghan civilians remain the war's biggest victims. 18-year old's today were born and raised in a war zone knowing little to nothing outside of destruction. Many children do not have access to education and have faced over 14,000 grave violations against them. In addition, as of 2016, more than 31,000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of the war.
For more information, please visit:
https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/afghan
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/timeline-military-presence-afghanistan-190908070831251.html
https://theglobepost.com/2019/10/07/afghan-youth-war/
October 4, 1976: Gregg vs. Georgia Re-institutes Capital Punishment
On this day in history, the Supreme Court lifted the ban on the death penalty in murder cases. In 1973, Troy Gregg was found guilty of two counts of murder and armed robbery, he was sentenced to capital punishment. However, Gregg decided to fight his sentence claiming that the death penalty was unconstitutional as it violated his 8th Amendment and 14th amendment rights and such punishment was excessive and cruel. In a 7-2 decision the Supreme Court upheld Georgia’s guided-discretion approach to capital punishment that sought to only impose capital punishment in instances where it is not cruel or excessive. The imposition in the Gregg vs. Georgia case was not considered prejudicial or arbitrary as it did not violate the holding in the Furman vs. Georgia case set 4 years prior. The capital punishment regarding the robbery charge was reversed but upheld for Gregg’s murder charges. Because of the court ruling that there were certain instances where capital punishment was constitutional, it opened the door for capital punishment to be used again.
For information, please visit:
https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/gregg-v-georgia-1976
http://sites.gsu.edu/us-constipedia/gregg-v-georgia-1976-2/
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/elessons/gregg-v-georgia-1976/
October 2, 1967: Thurgood Marshall Becomes the First African American Appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court
On this day in history, Thurgood Marshall was sworn into the United States Supreme Court to become the first African American justice to sit on the bench. He was a lawyer who served as an associate justice from October 2, 1967 until October 1,1991. Marshall was a champion of civil rights and desegregation. Growing up in Baltimore amid racially tense times, he developed a passion for civil rights early on. He was known to be a liberal voice in the court, often interpreting the Constitution as a living document. He argued that the death penalty was unconstitutional and was a strong supporter of affirmative action. Marshall was taught by his mentors to defeat racial discrimination by using existing laws. Marshall played a significant role in ending legal segregation during the Civil Rights Movement when he won the landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education as a counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/justices/thurgood_marshall
October 1, 1946: The Free Speech Movement Begins on UC Berkley’s Campus.
On this day in history, the Free Speech Movement began on the UC Berkley campus. Due to the rising threat of communism in the late 50’s and 60’s political activity was heavily restricted on campus. In fact, any political activity that was not related to the university was banned from campus. This forced political club to use a small strip of a space for all their club related activity. However, after the president of the university announced the decision to ban political activity from that one strip led to the sudden eruption of protesters. Led by Mario Savio, 500 fellow students marched onto campus to protest this decision condemning the administration saying that the First Amendment was the only valid guideline for student activities. Political activities continued to be held further angering the administration. The movement did not earn the recognition of the Board of Regents at first, but after months of protests the administration at Berkeley decided to support and recognize the movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1042/berkeley-free-speech-movement
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/libraries/bancroft-library/oral-history-center/projects/fsm
https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/43/the-free-speech-movement/
On this day, Dr. King and Rev. Abernathy unsuccessfully appealed against a contempt of court conviction. Their arrest came as result of their protests against segregation in Alabama years prior to that. In 1963, civil rights protests overwhelmed the city in Birmingham, Alabama. White segregationists along with law enforcement reacted by inflicting violence on protest participants. Shortly after, an Alabama state judge invoked an injunction that banned all anti-segregation protests.
As a result, Dr. King and Rev. Ralph Abernathy responded by defying the decision and organized a protest against the injunction. Due to their resistance, they were arrested and put in jail. Both posted bail and were released. However, albeit posting bail, they were still convicted. They appealed and the Supreme Court upheld the conviction, returning them back to Birmingham jail where protests erupted.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/oct/30
http://www.thekinglegacy.org/content/king-years
October 29, 1969: The Supreme Court Orders the Immediate Desegregation of Southern Schools
On this day in history, the Supreme Court decided on Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education ordering that every remaining segregated school in the South must immediately desegregate. Although the Supreme Court demanded the desegregation of schools in the famous 1955 Brown v. Board of Education II, the phrase “with all deliberate speed” was taken literally by school districts in the south. This case was brought up by Beatrice Alexander, on behalf, of her children. The Court underlined and emphasized each school district's obligation to create racially desegregated environments for children across the states.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.colorlines.com/articles/tbt-supreme-court-orders-immediate-desegregation-public-schools
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1969/632
October 24, 1929: The Events of Black Thursday Crash the Stock Market
On this day in history, panicked investors crashed the DOW sending it down 11 percent by selling and abandoning large amounts of stocks and investments. This panic arose when the day before, the DOW dropped 4.6 percent. This culminated in further drops in the market which fell as low as 41.22 on July 8th, 1932. Compared to the peaks in the Roaring Twenties, the DOW had plummeted by 90%. This loss of faith in the market, along with the dramatic fall, led to the era of serious economic upheaval in the US known as the Great depression. The Great Depression affected much of the western world and caused vast amounts of suffering.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blackthursday.asp
October 23, 1947: The NAACP Appeals to the World
On this day in 1947, the NAACP drafted a petition to the United Nation under the title “An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of Citizens of the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress”. In its appeal, the NAACP urged the UN to act on human rights violations such as lynching, segregation and socio-economic inequalities. It addressed voting, education, housing and healthcare disparities. The document was an important reflection of the hypocrisy of the United State as a promoter of liberty and equality. After returning home, many Africans Americans who served in WW2 were lynched by white mobs and denied equal rights. This document served as a petition to the hypocritical stance of the US and exposed the discriminatory practices and human rights violations to the world. The United Nations ultimately ignored the report and activists continued their fight without external help.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/appeal-world-un/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/oct/23
October 22, 1962: JFK’s Address on Cuban Missile Crisis Shocks the Nation
On this day in 1962, President John F. Kennedy announced to the nation that spy planes have detected the construction of Soviet medium range nuclear missile sites. These missiles were rumored to be capable of hitting many major U.S. cities. Although the Cuban Missile Crisis had started a few days prior, JFK’s decision to announce it to the nation put millions on edge, fearing the beginning of a nuclear war. This crisis forced the US to delicately dance around international issues and give in to the demands of Cuba’s allies, the USSR. The USSR promised to send the missiles in Cuba back to the USSR but in return, the US must pull their missiles out of Turkey. The USSR insisted that the US lowers its military influence in that region. Although the Crisis ended with the US’s supposed victory, it was a major victory for Cuba who found a new sense of security and for the USSR, who reached nuclear parity with the US.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Cuban-missile-crisis
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
October 21, 1955: Mary Louise Smith Arrested for Breaking Segregation Laws
On this day, Mary Louise Smith was arrested after refusing to give up her city line bus seat to a white passenger. Smith was one of the several women arrested for ignoring segregation laws prior to the Rosa Parks incident that sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Marie Louise Smith was an important civil rights activist and involved in a federal civil suit with 4 other women, Browder v. Gayle, where they challenged the constitutionality of bus segregation laws both on the state and local levels. Their activism proved vital as a 3-judge panel from the United States District Court ruled that these segregation laws were unconstitutional. The case went to the Supreme Court and was upheld. Her arrest, leading to the inspiration for further activism, boycotts and legal mobilization, led to the Supreme Court's order for Alabama to desegregate all of its buses.
For more more information, please visit:
https://blackthen.com/%E2%80%8Boctober-21-1955-mary-louise-smith-is-arrested-on-a-city-line-bus/
October 17, 1972: Congress Passes the Clean Water Act:
On this day, the Clean Water Act, originally known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, was passed by Congress granting the EPA more federal power to properly regulate, restore and maintain clean and healthy water. This act responded to growing public interest in environmentalism and calls to ensure that the nation’s bodies of waters are kept clean.
The act sets minimum standards for waste discharges for each industry and enacted policies for specific issues like oil spills. While the Act itself garnered a lot of public support and a near unanimous support from the left, it sparked some partisan conflict as President Nixon attempted to veto the bill multiple times.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.eenews.net/stories/1059971457
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Clean-Water-Act
https://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/clean-water-act.html
October 16, 1859: John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry
On this day in 1859, radical abolitionist John Brown attempted to start an armed slave revolt by taking over a U.S arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He sought to inspire similar events in the Southern States in hopes of it ultimately leading to the emancipation of all slaves.Brown led a small group of 22 into the raid and was stopped and defeated the next morning by Colonel Robert E. Lee and Lieutenant J.E.B. Stuart. Brown was tried in Virginia and found guilty for treason and murder, and sentenced to death.
Although the raid was not successful, Brown’s actions were important because they sparked social tension and inflicted pressure on the 1860 presidential race. Furthermore, Brown’s actions also eliminated chances of accommodation between the North and South. Today, it is considered as one of the important events that led to the United States Civil War.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry
October 15, 1966: The Black Panther Party is Established
On this day in history, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale established the Black Panther Party, an African American revolutionary, socialist political group in Oakland, California. The initial purpose of the party was to patrol neighborhoods and to stay vigilant for instances of police brutality.
The Black Panther Party practiced a nuanced approach when selecting its allies. As an organization, they did not believe that all white people should be classified as oppressors. They also knew that the rich African American capitalists could be capable of participating in the systemic oppression of the African American working class. The Blank Panther Party taught that economic exploitation is the root of all the oppression around the world and that the solution to oppression is abolishing capitalism. During this era, socialist movements were inching to become mainstream and this was a scare to may politicians in the U.S. The Black Panther's growing popularity and its alignment with other socialist movements outside the U.S. placed the party right in the cross hairs of the FBI. In 1969, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover claimed that the Black Panther Party was the biggest internal threat to the U.S.
Besides challenging police brutality, the Black Panthers provided various social services to poor communities. Services such as education, tuberculosis testing and legal aid became available throughout different neighborhoods. Despite these various services, the US government still saw the Black Panthers as a threat. The group continued operations until the late 70’s and early 80’s when all activities seemed to come to an end.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Panther-Party
https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-movement/black-panthers
October 14, 2019: The War on Drugs and its Disproportionate Effects on People of Color
On this Day in 1982, Ronald Reagan declared a “War on Drugs.” He reinforced the term that dates back to the Nixon administration, claiming that illicit substances pose a threat to U.S. national security.The mainstream media joined the initiative and reinforced racial stereotypes by sensationalizing the use of crack-cocaine in black neighborhoods while turning a blind eye to powder cocaine used among whites. The media facilitated a hysteria surrounding the use of crack which translated in to a harsh law and order approach to substance use.
As a result of this approach, prison populations soared and law enforcement targeted African Americans at much higher rates than whites despite the similar rates of drug use between the two groups. African Americans are four times more likely to get arrested for a marijuana charge than whites. They make up 30 percent of all drug related charges, even though they only constitute 12.5 percent of the population that is substance-dependent. Due to the punitive policies and racial targeting, people of color constitute around 80 percent of people in federal prison and 60 percent of those in state prison. Policies like these have further reinforced racial stereotypes and increased chances of recidivism for people of color through disenfranchisement and the lack of opportunities for re-entry.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/reports/2018/06/27/452819/ending-war-drugs-numbers/
https://timeline.com/ronald-nancy-reagan-war-on-drugs-crack-baby-just-say-no-cia-communism-racial-injustice-fcfeadb3548d
https://www.onthisday.com/day/october/14
October 11, 1991: Anita Hill Testifies at Clarence Thomas’ Confirmation Hearing
On this day in history, Anita Hill, an American attorney and former educator, gained nationwide notoriety when she testified at the confirmation hearing for Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas. Hill, who earned her law degree from Yale in 1980, worked as a legal adviser for Thomas in 1981. During her tenure there, she claimed that Thomas made numerous sexual advances. His misconduct included frequently talking about sex and repeatedly asking her out on dates. When Thomas became chair of the EEOC she followed but the harassment didn’t stop there. Hill left in 1983 deciding that she could no longer work in that type of work environment . In 1991, president George H.W. Bush nominated Thomas to the court. Hill went before the Senate Judiciary Committee to testify against his nomination. The hearing was televised sending the media and the nation into an uproar. Many believed that Hill was lying just to be in the spotlight, but many were appalled by the sexist and demeaning treatment she endured. The vote was close, and the Thomas nomination was narrowly passed with a vote of 52-48.
Although Hill went through much scrutiny, this event encouraged many women to enter politics with the number of seats increasing in both the Senate to the House.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anita-Hill
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/17/us/anita-hill-women-power.html
October 10th, 1973: Vice-president Spiro T. Agnew Resigns
On this day in history Vice-President Spiro T. Agnew resigns from office after he was found guilty on one count of federal income tax invasion. However, at the time of his resignation, he was being investigated for accusations of other crimes such as extortion and bribery during his time as Governor of Maryland. Agnew at first vowed to fight these allegations and did not plan to resign. However, President Richard Nixon was also undergoing investigations in regards to the Watergate scandal putting more pressure on the White House to remove Agnew from the line of succession in case Nixon was to be impeached. So Agnew's team conceded, negotiating secret plea deals with a federal judge to avoid any major convictions.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Spiro-Agnew
https://www.britannica.com/event/Watergate-Scandal/Pardon-and-aftermath
October 9, 2012: Malala Yousafzai Survives Attempted Assassination
On this day in 2012, Malala was shot in the head by Taliban gunmen. She was shot after receiving multiple death threats because of her stance for girls' right of education. Her advocacy had become more pronounced after the Taliban threatened to close schools for girls. As a result, the Taliban targeted her. Malala survived the gunshot and continued to be a champion of equal rights and opportunities for girls. Only 9 months after she was shot, at 16 years old, she gave a speech in front of the U.N. where she emphasized the importance of women’s education and pressuring the world to shift both their perspectives and their policies.
In 2013, she was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. In 2014, she became the youngest person at 17 to win the Nobel Peace Prize. Furthermore, Malala was appointed as the U.N. Messenger of Peace to promote women's education by U.N Secretary General Antonio Guterres.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.biography.com/activist/malala-yousafzai
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24379018
October 8, 2017: Harvey Weinstein Fired from the Weinstein Company
Harvey Weinstein, one of the most famous Hollywood producers of this generation, was fired from the Weinstein Company amid allegations of sexual harassment. These allegations go back decades and spotlight the problematic power dynamics and abuses of power in Hollywood. Over 30 women came out and spoke on their experiences with the producer. The abuse of power didn’t stop with Weinstein as many actors and actresses in Hollywood spoke up about their experiences and opened the floodgates to more allegations. This sparked the beginning of the #MeToo movement where people across many different industries were given the platform and the support to speak on their experiences. The trauma these women experienced was despicable. However, this whole saga began to change the way victims of sexual harassment and abuse were seen by the public. Instead of attacking these victims and ignoring what they say, as a society, we finally started to listen.
To learn more, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/10/16/me-too-alyssa-milano-urged-assault-victims-to-tweet-in-solidarity-the-response-was-massive/
https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-41594672
October 7, 2001: The Start of the War in Afghanistan
On this day in 2001, the United States launched airstrikes on Afghanistan, prompting its invasion and the longest war in US history. The attacks were in response to Al Qaeda’s September 11 attacks that killed nearly 3000 people in the United States. The attacks also ensued from the Taliban refusing to hand over al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden.
With the Taliban now dismantled and Bin Laden assassinated, Afghan civilians remain the war's biggest victims. 18-year old's today were born and raised in a war zone knowing little to nothing outside of destruction. Many children do not have access to education and have faced over 14,000 grave violations against them. In addition, as of 2016, more than 31,000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of the war.
For more information, please visit:
https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/afghan
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/timeline-military-presence-afghanistan-190908070831251.html
https://theglobepost.com/2019/10/07/afghan-youth-war/
October 4, 1976: Gregg vs. Georgia Re-institutes Capital Punishment
On this day in history, the Supreme Court lifted the ban on the death penalty in murder cases. In 1973, Troy Gregg was found guilty of two counts of murder and armed robbery, he was sentenced to capital punishment. However, Gregg decided to fight his sentence claiming that the death penalty was unconstitutional as it violated his 8th Amendment and 14th amendment rights and such punishment was excessive and cruel. In a 7-2 decision the Supreme Court upheld Georgia’s guided-discretion approach to capital punishment that sought to only impose capital punishment in instances where it is not cruel or excessive. The imposition in the Gregg vs. Georgia case was not considered prejudicial or arbitrary as it did not violate the holding in the Furman vs. Georgia case set 4 years prior. The capital punishment regarding the robbery charge was reversed but upheld for Gregg’s murder charges. Because of the court ruling that there were certain instances where capital punishment was constitutional, it opened the door for capital punishment to be used again.
For information, please visit:
https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/gregg-v-georgia-1976
http://sites.gsu.edu/us-constipedia/gregg-v-georgia-1976-2/
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/elessons/gregg-v-georgia-1976/
October 2, 1967: Thurgood Marshall Becomes the First African American Appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court
On this day in history, Thurgood Marshall was sworn into the United States Supreme Court to become the first African American justice to sit on the bench. He was a lawyer who served as an associate justice from October 2, 1967 until October 1,1991. Marshall was a champion of civil rights and desegregation. Growing up in Baltimore amid racially tense times, he developed a passion for civil rights early on. He was known to be a liberal voice in the court, often interpreting the Constitution as a living document. He argued that the death penalty was unconstitutional and was a strong supporter of affirmative action. Marshall was taught by his mentors to defeat racial discrimination by using existing laws. Marshall played a significant role in ending legal segregation during the Civil Rights Movement when he won the landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education as a counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/justices/thurgood_marshall
October 1, 1946: The Free Speech Movement Begins on UC Berkley’s Campus.
On this day in history, the Free Speech Movement began on the UC Berkley campus. Due to the rising threat of communism in the late 50’s and 60’s political activity was heavily restricted on campus. In fact, any political activity that was not related to the university was banned from campus. This forced political club to use a small strip of a space for all their club related activity. However, after the president of the university announced the decision to ban political activity from that one strip led to the sudden eruption of protesters. Led by Mario Savio, 500 fellow students marched onto campus to protest this decision condemning the administration saying that the First Amendment was the only valid guideline for student activities. Political activities continued to be held further angering the administration. The movement did not earn the recognition of the Board of Regents at first, but after months of protests the administration at Berkeley decided to support and recognize the movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1042/berkeley-free-speech-movement
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/libraries/bancroft-library/oral-history-center/projects/fsm
https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/43/the-free-speech-movement/
SEPTEMBER 2019
September 30, 1962: First African American Admitted to the University of Mississippi
On this day in 1962, James Meredith was escorted by a group of marshals and the deputy attorney general into his dorm to become the first African American student at the University of Mississippi. Racial tensions had plagued the South and violence had erupted in what was considered the war against white supremacy.
The University of Mississippi had rejected Meredith’s application twice. It wasn’t until over a year later, with the intervention of the Supreme Court, that Meredith was finally admitted. He still faced harassment as a minority and had to be escorted by marshals 24 hours a day. These decisions caused many armed civilian groups to stir violence, forcing President elect John F. Kennedy to prepare the possibility of U.S military force.
Around a year later, Meredith fulfilled his dreams and obtained a Political Science Degree. Several years after that he proceeded to graduate with a law degree from Colombia University.
For more information, please visit:
https://npg.si.edu/blog/september-30-1962-james-meredith-university-mississippi
September 27, 1979: Congress Approves the Department of Education as the 13th agency in the Cabinet.
On this day in history, Congress approved the appointment of the DOE as the 13th agency in the US cabinet. Although it was finally approved as an official agency in 1979, the history of the department dates back to 1867 when President Andrew Johnson signed legislation to create the department. However, it operated at a much smaller scale and undertook different names. In the 1950’s, there was a concentrated effort to use more federal money to fund education, specifically for those who may have not been receiving the same education as privileged students. As they had been historically left behind, critical issues pertinent to women, racial minorities, non-English speaking students, and disabled students needed to be dressed. This movement continued from the 60’s till the late 70’s culminating in the appointment of the Department in 1979 combining offices from several agencies.
For more information, please visit:
https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/focus/what.html
http://www.allgov.com/departments/department-of-education?detailsDepartmentID=584
September 26, 1960: The First Televised Presidential Debate
On this day in history, a major presidential debate between Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy and Republican Vice President Richard Nixon in Chicago was televised on CBS for the first time in the U.S. These debates came at a critical time in U.S. History where sentiments varied and pressure loomed heavily with regards to the USSR and Cuba and the country’s own civil rights movement and desegregation effort. These debates provided both candidates an opportunity to prove to voters that they are the leadership the country needed at the time. This was the first of four televised debates between the two candidates with Kennedy emerging as the victor with a slight edge in popularity of 49.7% compared to Nixon’s 49.5%. Not only did this help shape the outcome of the election, it ushered in a new era of campaigning where shaping public image and embracing media exposure becomes vital in having a successful political campaign.
For information on this event, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kennedy-Nixon-debates
September 25th, 1981: Sandra Day O'Connor Becomes the First Woman to Serve as a Supreme Court Justice
On this day in history, Sandra Day O’Connor became the first woman to sit on the Supreme Court bench. On September 25th, 1981, she was sworn in by Chief Justice Warren Burger in Washington D.C. O’Connor was considered a firm but just judge, where her voting pattern seemed to align with the Republican Party's (her party) views, but she always seemed to vote based on what she believed as most fitting with the U.S Constitution.
She paved the way for other women to join the court and broke new ground for women in the legal profession by receiving unanimous approval for her nomination by the Senate. She also famously voted against her own party’s call to revoke Roe vs. Wade, providing the swing vote to rule in favor of upholding women’s abortion rights.
Moreover, she wrote the majority opinion in Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, a case that involved gender discrimination in which the court ruled that the traditionally all-female nursing schools must admit qualified men. O’Connor's reasoning was that by not doing so, the stereotype of nursing being a women's-only profession would be further emphasized.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/justices/sandra_day_oconnor
https://www.history.com/topics/us-government/sandra-day-oconnor
September 18. 1947: Mendez v. Westminster Rule Segregation in California Schools Unconstitutional.
On this day in history, 8 years before the landmark Brown v. Board of Education ended segregation in schools, a group of Mexican families in California won a case deeming segregation to be unconstitutional in public schools. At this time, racism and bigotry against Mexicans in California were widespread. Over 80% of Mexican American students were placed into “Mexican Schools” after culturally biased I.Q. tests were administered and the school districts decided that Mexican students needed special assistance when learning English and other subjects. These schools did not abide by the “separate but equal” clause in Plessy v. Ferguson as these schools were improperly funded and in terrible condition while they taught students how to be field workers and house cleaners instead of providing the “special assistance” that the district thought was necessary. After years of mistreatment, Mexican families had enough and took the school district to court. The first of these battles was won when a Mexican family in Lemon Grove School District in San Diego sued the school and successfully got a ruling favoring integration.
In 1944, Gonzalo and Felicitas Mendez moved to Westminster. Following their children's denial from a local school specifically for having darker skin and a non-European surname, they filed a lawsuit which later came to be known as Mendez v. Westminster. Federal District Judge Paul McCormick ruled that the segregation of Mexican Americans was in violation of the 14th amendment. This case paved the way for future cases battling segregation and despite the influence of the case it was overshadowed due to fact it never reached the supreme court. Thus, its impact was primarily felt in California and but not around the country. As of recent, this trail-blazing case has begun to earn the recognition that it deserves.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/mendez-school-segregation-mexican-american
https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/background-mendez-v-westminster-re-enactmenthttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Mendez-v-Westminster
September 17, 2011: The Occupy Wall Street Movement Begins
On this day in history the Occupy Wall Street protests began with thousands gathering in Zuccotti Park to protest the unequal wealth distribution between the wealthy 1% and the other 99%. Protesters were not only protesting for a more fair and equal wealth distribution but also vocalizing their concerns from the struggling job market to the crippling debt experienced by many. However, the nature of the protests differentiated Occupy Wall Street from others before it. In the era of modern technology, it gave this leaderless movement a platform drawing attentions from celebrities in Hollywood to the president himself. Even after the protesters were forced out of Zuccotti Park, the movement gained so much traction online that it was impossible to suppress their messages and their demands. As it spread much further than Wall Street, protesters around the country spoke up against corporations and conglomerates with regards to the unfair treatment of workers. It sparked a national conversation on the systemic inequalities ingrained in the U.S.
For information read here:
https://www.npr.org/2011/10/20/141530025/occupy-wall-street-from-a-blog-post-to-a-movement
https://www.newsweek.com/has-occupy-wall-street-changed-america-seven-years-birth-political-movement-1126364
September 12, 1974: Opposition to Desegregation of Boston School Busing
On this day in history, violent opposition arose in light of the desegregation of “busing” in Boston. On the opening day of classes in 1974, buses carrying African American children to their new school in a predominantly white area were pelted with objects by white protesters primarily in South Boston, an area that holds a large portion of Boston’s Irish Catholic community.
The change came after years of parents and other community leaders pleading with the Boston School Committee to provide better resources for their children, presenting them data highlighting the disparity of funding between the black schools and the white schools. The data illustrated that these school districts blatantly discriminated against black children, however, this discrimination remained in tact for many years due to wording within the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The Act didnot require for the assignment of students to other schools to fix any imbalance. However, that changed when In his June 1974 ruling in Morgan v. Hennigan, U.S. District Judge Arthur Garrity said that these school districts were discriminating against black children. This began the forced busing on Sep. 12 in what was Judge Garrity’s attempt to desegregate these geographically segregated schools, assigning students to specific schools to fix racial imbalance. These busing and school changes were met with violent protests for months, until finally the National Guard was called in to intervene and put a stop to them.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/violence-in-boston-over-racial-busing
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/03/the-boston-busing-crisis-was-never-intended-to-work/474264/https://www.britannica.com/topic/busing
On this day in 1962, James Meredith was escorted by a group of marshals and the deputy attorney general into his dorm to become the first African American student at the University of Mississippi. Racial tensions had plagued the South and violence had erupted in what was considered the war against white supremacy.
The University of Mississippi had rejected Meredith’s application twice. It wasn’t until over a year later, with the intervention of the Supreme Court, that Meredith was finally admitted. He still faced harassment as a minority and had to be escorted by marshals 24 hours a day. These decisions caused many armed civilian groups to stir violence, forcing President elect John F. Kennedy to prepare the possibility of U.S military force.
Around a year later, Meredith fulfilled his dreams and obtained a Political Science Degree. Several years after that he proceeded to graduate with a law degree from Colombia University.
For more information, please visit:
https://npg.si.edu/blog/september-30-1962-james-meredith-university-mississippi
September 27, 1979: Congress Approves the Department of Education as the 13th agency in the Cabinet.
On this day in history, Congress approved the appointment of the DOE as the 13th agency in the US cabinet. Although it was finally approved as an official agency in 1979, the history of the department dates back to 1867 when President Andrew Johnson signed legislation to create the department. However, it operated at a much smaller scale and undertook different names. In the 1950’s, there was a concentrated effort to use more federal money to fund education, specifically for those who may have not been receiving the same education as privileged students. As they had been historically left behind, critical issues pertinent to women, racial minorities, non-English speaking students, and disabled students needed to be dressed. This movement continued from the 60’s till the late 70’s culminating in the appointment of the Department in 1979 combining offices from several agencies.
For more information, please visit:
https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/focus/what.html
http://www.allgov.com/departments/department-of-education?detailsDepartmentID=584
September 26, 1960: The First Televised Presidential Debate
On this day in history, a major presidential debate between Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy and Republican Vice President Richard Nixon in Chicago was televised on CBS for the first time in the U.S. These debates came at a critical time in U.S. History where sentiments varied and pressure loomed heavily with regards to the USSR and Cuba and the country’s own civil rights movement and desegregation effort. These debates provided both candidates an opportunity to prove to voters that they are the leadership the country needed at the time. This was the first of four televised debates between the two candidates with Kennedy emerging as the victor with a slight edge in popularity of 49.7% compared to Nixon’s 49.5%. Not only did this help shape the outcome of the election, it ushered in a new era of campaigning where shaping public image and embracing media exposure becomes vital in having a successful political campaign.
For information on this event, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kennedy-Nixon-debates
September 25th, 1981: Sandra Day O'Connor Becomes the First Woman to Serve as a Supreme Court Justice
On this day in history, Sandra Day O’Connor became the first woman to sit on the Supreme Court bench. On September 25th, 1981, she was sworn in by Chief Justice Warren Burger in Washington D.C. O’Connor was considered a firm but just judge, where her voting pattern seemed to align with the Republican Party's (her party) views, but she always seemed to vote based on what she believed as most fitting with the U.S Constitution.
She paved the way for other women to join the court and broke new ground for women in the legal profession by receiving unanimous approval for her nomination by the Senate. She also famously voted against her own party’s call to revoke Roe vs. Wade, providing the swing vote to rule in favor of upholding women’s abortion rights.
Moreover, she wrote the majority opinion in Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, a case that involved gender discrimination in which the court ruled that the traditionally all-female nursing schools must admit qualified men. O’Connor's reasoning was that by not doing so, the stereotype of nursing being a women's-only profession would be further emphasized.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/justices/sandra_day_oconnor
https://www.history.com/topics/us-government/sandra-day-oconnor
September 18. 1947: Mendez v. Westminster Rule Segregation in California Schools Unconstitutional.
On this day in history, 8 years before the landmark Brown v. Board of Education ended segregation in schools, a group of Mexican families in California won a case deeming segregation to be unconstitutional in public schools. At this time, racism and bigotry against Mexicans in California were widespread. Over 80% of Mexican American students were placed into “Mexican Schools” after culturally biased I.Q. tests were administered and the school districts decided that Mexican students needed special assistance when learning English and other subjects. These schools did not abide by the “separate but equal” clause in Plessy v. Ferguson as these schools were improperly funded and in terrible condition while they taught students how to be field workers and house cleaners instead of providing the “special assistance” that the district thought was necessary. After years of mistreatment, Mexican families had enough and took the school district to court. The first of these battles was won when a Mexican family in Lemon Grove School District in San Diego sued the school and successfully got a ruling favoring integration.
In 1944, Gonzalo and Felicitas Mendez moved to Westminster. Following their children's denial from a local school specifically for having darker skin and a non-European surname, they filed a lawsuit which later came to be known as Mendez v. Westminster. Federal District Judge Paul McCormick ruled that the segregation of Mexican Americans was in violation of the 14th amendment. This case paved the way for future cases battling segregation and despite the influence of the case it was overshadowed due to fact it never reached the supreme court. Thus, its impact was primarily felt in California and but not around the country. As of recent, this trail-blazing case has begun to earn the recognition that it deserves.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/mendez-school-segregation-mexican-american
https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/background-mendez-v-westminster-re-enactmenthttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Mendez-v-Westminster
September 17, 2011: The Occupy Wall Street Movement Begins
On this day in history the Occupy Wall Street protests began with thousands gathering in Zuccotti Park to protest the unequal wealth distribution between the wealthy 1% and the other 99%. Protesters were not only protesting for a more fair and equal wealth distribution but also vocalizing their concerns from the struggling job market to the crippling debt experienced by many. However, the nature of the protests differentiated Occupy Wall Street from others before it. In the era of modern technology, it gave this leaderless movement a platform drawing attentions from celebrities in Hollywood to the president himself. Even after the protesters were forced out of Zuccotti Park, the movement gained so much traction online that it was impossible to suppress their messages and their demands. As it spread much further than Wall Street, protesters around the country spoke up against corporations and conglomerates with regards to the unfair treatment of workers. It sparked a national conversation on the systemic inequalities ingrained in the U.S.
For information read here:
https://www.npr.org/2011/10/20/141530025/occupy-wall-street-from-a-blog-post-to-a-movement
https://www.newsweek.com/has-occupy-wall-street-changed-america-seven-years-birth-political-movement-1126364
September 12, 1974: Opposition to Desegregation of Boston School Busing
On this day in history, violent opposition arose in light of the desegregation of “busing” in Boston. On the opening day of classes in 1974, buses carrying African American children to their new school in a predominantly white area were pelted with objects by white protesters primarily in South Boston, an area that holds a large portion of Boston’s Irish Catholic community.
The change came after years of parents and other community leaders pleading with the Boston School Committee to provide better resources for their children, presenting them data highlighting the disparity of funding between the black schools and the white schools. The data illustrated that these school districts blatantly discriminated against black children, however, this discrimination remained in tact for many years due to wording within the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The Act didnot require for the assignment of students to other schools to fix any imbalance. However, that changed when In his June 1974 ruling in Morgan v. Hennigan, U.S. District Judge Arthur Garrity said that these school districts were discriminating against black children. This began the forced busing on Sep. 12 in what was Judge Garrity’s attempt to desegregate these geographically segregated schools, assigning students to specific schools to fix racial imbalance. These busing and school changes were met with violent protests for months, until finally the National Guard was called in to intervene and put a stop to them.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/violence-in-boston-over-racial-busing
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/03/the-boston-busing-crisis-was-never-intended-to-work/474264/https://www.britannica.com/topic/busing
AUGUST 2019
August 27, 1962: Congress passes the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution outlawing the poll tax
On this day in 1962, Congress passed the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting poll taxes as a prerequisite for citizens voting in federal elections. When the Constitution was first ratified, many states decided that only property owners had the right to vote. States wanted an interested and engaged electorate, and they believed that property owners would be the most politically active group of individuals as they were impacted the most by the outcome of an election. Some states eventually eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification, but required voters to pay a poll tax. Initially, this increased voter participation because more citizens could pay a tax than own sufficient property. Additionally, taxpayers would be more incentivized to vote because the government would decide how their tax money would be used.
Most states abandoned property requirements and poll taxes as voting requirements by the mid-nineteenth century, allowing all free white men the right to vote. Then, the Fifteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution, giving all men the right to vote regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. States immediately began to reintroduce poll taxes in addition to literacy tests and felony disenfranchisement in an attempt to suppress Black voter registration and turnout. Voter turnout significantly declined, and poor white voters were also affected by the economically disparate requirements. Some states made the poll taxes cumulative—voters would need to pay the tax for the upcoming election as well as taxes for previous years that they failed to pay taxes. There were other administrative barriers that prevented people from voting, such as requiring payment months in advance or requiring a receipt as proof of payment.
The Supreme Court repeatedly upheld the constitutionality of poll taxes, but by 1962, most states, except for Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, did not require them. As the Civil Rights Movement built momentum, President Kennedy began to endorse the elimination of poll taxes and literacy tests. Congress had been trying to abolish poll taxes in federal elections for years and it finally succeeded on August 27 when the Twenty-Fourth Amendment was passed. There were many debates about the Amendment regarding states’ rights so as a concession to states’ rights advocates, the Amendment’s language made the elimination of poll taxes specific to federal elections.
The Twenty-Fourth Amendment was ratified after achieving the required approval of three-fourths of the states on January 23, 1964. Several states resisted, however. Virginia, for example, passed its own version of a poll tax law that required voters who could not pay the tax to filed a notarized or witnessed certificate of residence at least six months before each election. The Supreme Court ruled that this Virginia law violated the Twenty-Fourth Amendment as it placed a material burden on those who could not pay. In 1966, the Supreme Court found in Harper v. Virginia Board of Electors that all poll taxes, including those for state and local elections, were unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. Thus, the Twenty-Fourth Amendment and following Supreme Court decisions enabled many more people of different races and economic backgrounds to vote and participate in the democratic processes of the country.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxiv
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Twenty-fourth-Amendment
https://constitution.laws.com/24th-amendment
August 20, 1964: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
On this day in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 into law. The Act actualized the War on Poverty—expansive legislative reform intended to eradicate poverty in the United States. President Johnson first announced an “unconditional war on poverty” in his first State of the Union address in January 1964. At the time, 20% of Americans were in poverty, so President Johnson called attention to the need for a national response. He believed that the government had a constitutional responsibility to provide for the general welfare of the United States, so his administration spearheaded social-welfare legislation. His efforts were met with resistance from both Southern conservatives, who believed that federal money should not be used to help the poor, and liberals, who believed that the reforms were not strong enough. The Act created the Office of Economic Opportunity, which supervised and funded eleven new economic and social welfare programs. These programs included the Job Corps, which would provide job training for young men and women, the Head Start early-education program for children from poor families, and Work Study, which provided grants to universities for part-time employment of low-income students.
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 did not have the widespread impact that President Johnson and its other proponents wanted it to have. One reason for this is because the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War limited the amount of federal resources that went towards funding the programs under the Economic Opportunity Act. Congress ultimately repealed the Act in 1981 during the first year of the Reagan administration. However, many of the programs still survive today, such as Head Start and Work-Study which are now overseen by the Department of Education. Ultimately, the Economic Act of 1964 drew more attention to the issues of poverty and wealth inequality, spurring a significant turning point in the American political discourse.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/economics-terms-and-concepts/economic-0
https://www.britannica.com/topic/War-on-Poverty#ref1223412
http://encyclopedia.federalism.org/index.php/Economic_Opportunity_Act_of_1964
August 19, 1791: Benjamin Banneker Pens Public Letter to Thomas Jefferson
On this day in 1791, Benjamin Banneker, a prominent African-American man, penned a public letter to Thomas Jefferson to confront his support of slavery. Banneker was a noted intellectual and had a long array of professions such as writer, mathematician, scientist, farmer, surveyor and naturalist.
Banneker challenged Jefferson's views on slavery and argued that a pro-slavery stance was completely contrary to the ideals of the Declaration of Independence. As part of his argument, Banneker noted the U.S. struggle against Great Britain: “[The] time in which the Arms and tyranny of the British Crown were exerted with every powerful effort in order to reduce you to a State of Servitude” was a time when [Jefferson] “clearly saw into the injustice of a State of Slavery...[It is] pitiable, [that] in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, you should at the same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to yourselves.”
After this initial letter, Jefferson and Banneker began to exchange letters. The correspondence revealed Jefferson's beliefs that blacks and whites were naturally different and that African-Americans should be relocated outside the U.S. Unfortunately, Banneker was unsuccessful in changing Jefferson's pro-slavery attitudes.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/aug/19
August 16, 1928: Birth of Wyatt Tee Walker
On this day in 1928, Wyatt Tee Walker, who would become a prominent national civil rights leader, was born in Brockton, Massachusetts. As a pastor throughout his early career, Walker led major civil rights organizations for social justice and against segregation. He served as president for the Petersburg branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and co-founded the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1958. His active role within the Civil Rights Movement led to his close relationship with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who would elect Walker as a board member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and would also later invite Walker to serve as his chief of staff. As a strong manager, leader, and strategist, Walker sparked multiple phases of civil rights organizing, including “Project C” – the heart of the Birmingham Campaign – and the 1963 March on Washington. Walker passed away on January 23, 2018 and is celebrated as “one of the keenest minds of the nonviolent revolution.”
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/walker-wyatt-tee https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Walker_Wyatt_Tee_1929-https://www.nps.gov/features/malu/feat0002/wof/Wyatt_Walker.htm
August 15th 1965: Watts Riots
On this day in 1965, the Watts riots were continuing to rock the Los Angeles area. These riots began on August 11th and continued until August 16th. They would result in the deaths of 34 individuals, the injuries of 1,032 individuals and the arrests of 3,438 individuals. Almost 4,000 members of the National Guard were called upon to suppress these riots and over $40 million dollars in damage resulted. Most of those killed and injured were African-Americans.
These riots began on August 11th after Marquette Frye, an African-American male, was pulled over for supposed reckless driving. Frye ended up in a heated argument with officers which escalated into a physical altercation. Many claimed police had also hurt a pregnant woman and riots ensued. Although this incident began the riots, many scholars agree that the riots were a culmination of the racial discrimination faced by African-Americans around the Los Angeles area during the 1960s.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Watts-Riots-of-1965
August 14th, 1935: FDR Signs the Social Security Act
On this day in history, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act, setting forth legislation that established a system of old age benefits for workers which extended to include the unemployed, dependents, and people with disabilities. As a response to the Great Depression, the Social Security Act was a part of the New Deal, a series of programs and projects to stabilize the economy and provide relief to those who were suffering. The new law put forth the Social Security program, an old-age pension program funded by payroll taxes. Before, the elderly regularly faced the possibility of poverty after retirement. Now, the pensions were funded by contributions in the form of taxes on workers’ wages and employers’ payrolls. The law was faced by opposition who considered this legislation a breach into the private sphere and an abuse of federal power. The Social Security Act also established an unemployment insurance program, providing income to the unemployed and the Aid to Dependent Children program, promoting the welfare of children and security for families of single mothers.
Enacted by President Roosevelt, the Social Security Act of 1935 provided relief to the American people, quelling the fear of poverty that was exacerbated by the Great Depression.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=68
https://www.ssa.gov/history/50ed.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Social-Security-Act-United-States-1935
August 13, 1993: U.S. Court of Appeals Rules Congress Must Save All Emails
On this day in 1993, in the case Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed the decision of the federal district court that all federal agencies, including Congress and the White House, must retain all official emails. The National Security Council and the Executive Office of the President had been using electronic communications systems such as email for their correspondences since the mid-1980s for improved efficiency. Towards the end of the Reagan administration, the National Security Archive, a research library of declassified U.S. government records, learned that all emails unrelated to the ongoing Iran-Contra investigation backup tapes were going to be erased. In the 1985 Iran-Contra scandal, John Poindexter, President Reagan’s national security adviser, set up a system that allowed the Marine Corps. Lt. Col. Oliver North to bypass normal channels and exchange direct emails to monitor the diversion of funds from Iranian weapons sales to the Nicaraguan Contras. When the scandal broke, Poindexter deleted over 5,000 emails, unaware that the messages still existed on backup tapes.
The Iran-Contra scandal revealed the importance of preserving government electronic records, so once the National Security Archive discovered that other emails would be deleted, it filed several Freedom of Information Act requests on January 19, 1989, the final day of the Reagan administration, for all material on the electronic communications systems of the National Security Council and the Executive Office of the President. It also filed a lawsuit for a declaration that all electronic documents stored on the electronic communications systems are federal and presidential records as well as an injunction prohibiting the destruction of those documents. The district court ruled in its favor and when the defendants appealed, the Court of Appeals affirmed the decision.
For more information, please visit:
https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/1/1274/574897/
https://www.politico.com/story/2016/08/us-court-of-appeals-rules-all-federal-units-must-retain-emails-aug-13-1993-226870
August 12, 2013: NYPD’s “Stop and Frisk” Ruled Unconstitutional
On this day in 2013, a federal court ruled the NYPD’s “stop and frisk” policy unconstitutional. This policy was the source of nationwide controversy and attention.
The NYPD’s “stop and frisk” policy permitted officers to stop and pat down individuals on streets in attempts to find weapons and other pieces of evidence of criminal activity. While this policy was in operation, many public officials and NYPD leaders contended that it was necessary to protect the citizens of NYC. Civil Rights leaders questioned and disputed this claim. These leaders saw the policy at large, as a way to target communities with large populations of people of color.
The lawsuit, which concluded with a ruling that the policy was unconstitutional, produced evidence showing the racial disparity in the implementation of the policy. For example, “although black and Latino people made up fifty-two percent of New York City’s population, they constituted eighty-five percent of those stopped under the policy between 2004 and 2009." More data established that the racial composition of a neighborhood was a better predictor of its rate of “stop and frisk” than its crime rate. Along with this data, further evidence ascertained the unconstitutional nature through which this policy was implemented in NYC for many years.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/13/nyregion/stop-and-frisk-practice-violated-rights-judge-rules.html
https://ccrjustice.org/home/press-center/press-releases/landmark-decision-judge-rules-nypd-stop-and-frisk-practices
https://www.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/gender-sexuality/racial-justice-lit-wkshp/case_study_-_floyd_v._city_of_ny.pdf
August 9, 1974: President Richard Nixon Resigns
On August 8, 1974, President Richard Nixon gave his official resignation speech, informing the nation that he would be resigning from his presidency at noon the next day. On August 9, Vice President Gerald Ford was sworn in as the new President to complete the remaining 2 years of Nixon’s term. Nixon’s presidential resignation was the only one to have occurred in U.S. history, and came in response to the Watergate affair – a major American political scandal that charged Nixon with misusing government agencies and covering up crimes in 1972. In his speech, Nixon announced his hopes that, by resigning, he would “[hasten] the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.” Nixon was later pardoned by President Ford for any crimes he may have committed while in office.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/080974-3.htm
https://watergate.info/resignation
August 8, 1974: Nixon Gives Resignation Speech
On this day in 1974, the thirty-seventh president of the United States, Richard Nixon, resigned as a response to the Watergate Scandal. The Watergate Scandal occurred after it was revealed that Nixon and his government were involved in the cover-up of a break- in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Complex.
Richard Nixon’s resignation speech was a public address given on August 8, 1974 in the White House Oval Office. The Watergate Scandal occurred during Nixon’s controversial re-election campaign, which had prompted the Congress to initiate impeachment proceedings against him.
"By taking this action," he said, "I hope that I will have hastened the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America." Vice President Ford, who spoke a short time later in front of his Alexandria home, announced that Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger will remain in his Cabinet. The President-to-be praised Mr. Nixon's sacrifice for the country and called it "one of the saddest incidents that I've ever witnessed." Mr. Nixon said he decided he must resign when he concluded that he no longer had "a strong enough political base in the Congress" to make it possible for him to complete his term of office. Declaring that he has never been a quitter, Mr. Nixon said that to leave office before the end of his term " is abhorrent to every instinct in my body." But "as President, I must put the interests of America first," he said.
While the President acknowledged that some of his judgments "were wrong," he did not confess the "high crimes and misdemeanors" with which the House Judiciary Committee charged him in its bill of impeachment. He omitted all Judiciary Committee charges including the cover-up of Watergate crimes and the misuse of government agencies such as the FBI, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Internal Revenue Service.
Although Nixon was the ninth president not to complete the four-year term since the presidency was established in 1789, he was the first to do so for a reason other than dying in office. His presidential resignation remains the only one in U.S. history.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.timeanddate.com/on-this-day/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/080974-3.htm
https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/richard-nixon-resignation-letter-gerald-ford-pardon/
August 7th, 2010: Elena Kagan Sworn in as Supreme Court Justice
On this day in history, Elena Kagan was sworn in as the 112th justice and fourth woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. Justice Kagan was nominated by President Barack Obama to replace Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens. She was confirmed by a 63-37 vote by the Senate. Justice Kagan, while having an extensive and impressive career as the dean of Harvard, Clinton’s counsel, and solicitor general, is unique in the fact that she had no prior judicial experience. This had drawn ire from her critics but allowed Kagan to have a diverse viewpoint when analyzing the law. She is an advocate for being a consensus builder, rarely writing concurring opinions as it takes away from the consensus of the court. Justice Kagan is known to be the justice most up to date with contemporary culture and technology. She is known for her majority opinion in Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, where she constantly added Spider-man references, a testament to her fondness of comic books. She also wrote the majority opinion for Miller v. Alabama; Jackson v. Hobbs, holding that life without parole was a disproportionate punishment for juveniles, but not for adult offenders.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129005079
https://www.oyez.org/justices/elena_kagan
https://ballotpedia.org/Elena_Kagan
August 6, 1965: Voting Rights Act of 1965 Signed into Law
On this day in 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law. The Act prohibited discriminatory voting practices that had been adopted by southern states after the Civil War, such as mandatory literacy tests and poll taxes. These practices specifically targeted African Americans, preventing them from exercising their constitutional right to vote. In a speech to Congress on March 15, 1965, President Johnson called for voting rights legislation after several peaceful participants marching from Selma to Montgomery were murdered by Alabama state troopers for advocating for their voting rights. In his speech, Johnson addressed the unfairness of literacy tests and other mechanisms preventing African Americans from voting. He discussed how election officials would tell black voters that they had gotten the date, time, or polling location wrong and would force some voters to recite the entire Constitution or explain complex state laws. These practices were the reason why so few African Americans were registered voters and why African Americans had very little political power.
On May 26, 1965, the Voting Rights Act was passed in the Senate by a 77-19 vote. It was then debated in the House of Representatives for more than a month, eventually passing by a vote of 333-85 on July 9, 1965. In a ceremony with various civil rights leaders present (including Martin Luther King Jr.), Johnson signed the Act into law on August 6. The act nationally prohibited the denial or abridgment of the right to vote on the basis of race or color. It was immediately challenged in the courts, but the Supreme Court issued several decisions upholding its constitutionality. The passage of the law led to the registration of a quarter of a million new African American voters by the end of 1965. By 1966, only 4 out of the 13 southern states had less than 50% of African Americans registered to vote. The act was further amended and strengthened in 1970, 1975, 1982, and 2006, allowing for protections for language minority citizens and renewing various provisions.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/voting-rights-act
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=100
https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/voting-rights-1965
https://www.justice.gov/crt/history-federal-voting-rights-laws
August 5th, 2012: Wisconsin Sikh Temple Shooting
On this day in 2012, a mass shooting took place in a Sikh temple located in Oak Creek, Wisconsin. Wade Michael Page, a 40-year-old U.S. Army veteran, entered a Sikh temple and fatally killed 6 individuals and wounded 4 others. Page committed suicide after a responding officer to the scene shot him in the hip.
Although Page provided no motive or manifesto as we have seen with other mass shooters, Page had clear ties to white supremacist and Neo-Nazi groups. He was a member of the Hammerskins, a white supremacist group based out of Dallas and had a strong presence in the white power music scene. He was a member of Neo-Nazi bands such as End Apathy, Definite Hate and Blue Eyed Devils. Page legally purchased the handgun used in the attack and passed all necessary background checks before buying it. The owner of the store stated that Page's demeanor and appearance "raised no eyebrows whatsoever". Many have speculated he engaged in the shooting because he believed the temple housed Muslims who he hated because of the events of 9/11 by radical Muslim extremists. If this is true, Page himself did not understand who his enemies were. He did not realize he was attacking individuals of a whole different faith.
Many vigils were held in remembrance of the victims, however, real legislative action, as we have seen in other mass shootings, was limited. The most notable being Senator Dick Durbin convening a congressional hearing to address hate crimes before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights and Human Rights.
Following the two recent mass shootings over the past few days its important to remember these types of mass shootings are nothing new.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2012/sikh-temple-killer-wade-michael-page-radicalized-army
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/us/shooting-reported-at-temple-in-wisconsin.html
August 2, 1776: Declaration of Independence Signed
On this day in 1776, a majority of the Second Continental Congress assembled at Independence Hall to sign the United States Declaration of Independence. Although we celebrate July 4, 1776 as our Independence Day, the Continental Congress declared independence on July 2, 1776, and signed the Declaration in an official signing event on August 2nd of that year. Of the 56 official signers of the Declaration, 50 signed the document on August 2nd; the remaining signatures were signed after this date, with the last signature collected in January of 1777, seven months after the Declaration of Independence had been approved by Congress. By signing the Declaration of Independence, these signers committed “our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor” to our independence.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/declara2.html
https://www.nps.gov/articles/engrossed.htm
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-declaration-of-independence-is-officially-signed
On this day in 1962, Congress passed the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting poll taxes as a prerequisite for citizens voting in federal elections. When the Constitution was first ratified, many states decided that only property owners had the right to vote. States wanted an interested and engaged electorate, and they believed that property owners would be the most politically active group of individuals as they were impacted the most by the outcome of an election. Some states eventually eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification, but required voters to pay a poll tax. Initially, this increased voter participation because more citizens could pay a tax than own sufficient property. Additionally, taxpayers would be more incentivized to vote because the government would decide how their tax money would be used.
Most states abandoned property requirements and poll taxes as voting requirements by the mid-nineteenth century, allowing all free white men the right to vote. Then, the Fifteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution, giving all men the right to vote regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. States immediately began to reintroduce poll taxes in addition to literacy tests and felony disenfranchisement in an attempt to suppress Black voter registration and turnout. Voter turnout significantly declined, and poor white voters were also affected by the economically disparate requirements. Some states made the poll taxes cumulative—voters would need to pay the tax for the upcoming election as well as taxes for previous years that they failed to pay taxes. There were other administrative barriers that prevented people from voting, such as requiring payment months in advance or requiring a receipt as proof of payment.
The Supreme Court repeatedly upheld the constitutionality of poll taxes, but by 1962, most states, except for Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, did not require them. As the Civil Rights Movement built momentum, President Kennedy began to endorse the elimination of poll taxes and literacy tests. Congress had been trying to abolish poll taxes in federal elections for years and it finally succeeded on August 27 when the Twenty-Fourth Amendment was passed. There were many debates about the Amendment regarding states’ rights so as a concession to states’ rights advocates, the Amendment’s language made the elimination of poll taxes specific to federal elections.
The Twenty-Fourth Amendment was ratified after achieving the required approval of three-fourths of the states on January 23, 1964. Several states resisted, however. Virginia, for example, passed its own version of a poll tax law that required voters who could not pay the tax to filed a notarized or witnessed certificate of residence at least six months before each election. The Supreme Court ruled that this Virginia law violated the Twenty-Fourth Amendment as it placed a material burden on those who could not pay. In 1966, the Supreme Court found in Harper v. Virginia Board of Electors that all poll taxes, including those for state and local elections, were unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. Thus, the Twenty-Fourth Amendment and following Supreme Court decisions enabled many more people of different races and economic backgrounds to vote and participate in the democratic processes of the country.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxiv
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Twenty-fourth-Amendment
https://constitution.laws.com/24th-amendment
August 20, 1964: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
On this day in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 into law. The Act actualized the War on Poverty—expansive legislative reform intended to eradicate poverty in the United States. President Johnson first announced an “unconditional war on poverty” in his first State of the Union address in January 1964. At the time, 20% of Americans were in poverty, so President Johnson called attention to the need for a national response. He believed that the government had a constitutional responsibility to provide for the general welfare of the United States, so his administration spearheaded social-welfare legislation. His efforts were met with resistance from both Southern conservatives, who believed that federal money should not be used to help the poor, and liberals, who believed that the reforms were not strong enough. The Act created the Office of Economic Opportunity, which supervised and funded eleven new economic and social welfare programs. These programs included the Job Corps, which would provide job training for young men and women, the Head Start early-education program for children from poor families, and Work Study, which provided grants to universities for part-time employment of low-income students.
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 did not have the widespread impact that President Johnson and its other proponents wanted it to have. One reason for this is because the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War limited the amount of federal resources that went towards funding the programs under the Economic Opportunity Act. Congress ultimately repealed the Act in 1981 during the first year of the Reagan administration. However, many of the programs still survive today, such as Head Start and Work-Study which are now overseen by the Department of Education. Ultimately, the Economic Act of 1964 drew more attention to the issues of poverty and wealth inequality, spurring a significant turning point in the American political discourse.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/economics-terms-and-concepts/economic-0
https://www.britannica.com/topic/War-on-Poverty#ref1223412
http://encyclopedia.federalism.org/index.php/Economic_Opportunity_Act_of_1964
August 19, 1791: Benjamin Banneker Pens Public Letter to Thomas Jefferson
On this day in 1791, Benjamin Banneker, a prominent African-American man, penned a public letter to Thomas Jefferson to confront his support of slavery. Banneker was a noted intellectual and had a long array of professions such as writer, mathematician, scientist, farmer, surveyor and naturalist.
Banneker challenged Jefferson's views on slavery and argued that a pro-slavery stance was completely contrary to the ideals of the Declaration of Independence. As part of his argument, Banneker noted the U.S. struggle against Great Britain: “[The] time in which the Arms and tyranny of the British Crown were exerted with every powerful effort in order to reduce you to a State of Servitude” was a time when [Jefferson] “clearly saw into the injustice of a State of Slavery...[It is] pitiable, [that] in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, you should at the same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to yourselves.”
After this initial letter, Jefferson and Banneker began to exchange letters. The correspondence revealed Jefferson's beliefs that blacks and whites were naturally different and that African-Americans should be relocated outside the U.S. Unfortunately, Banneker was unsuccessful in changing Jefferson's pro-slavery attitudes.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/aug/19
August 16, 1928: Birth of Wyatt Tee Walker
On this day in 1928, Wyatt Tee Walker, who would become a prominent national civil rights leader, was born in Brockton, Massachusetts. As a pastor throughout his early career, Walker led major civil rights organizations for social justice and against segregation. He served as president for the Petersburg branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and co-founded the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1958. His active role within the Civil Rights Movement led to his close relationship with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who would elect Walker as a board member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and would also later invite Walker to serve as his chief of staff. As a strong manager, leader, and strategist, Walker sparked multiple phases of civil rights organizing, including “Project C” – the heart of the Birmingham Campaign – and the 1963 March on Washington. Walker passed away on January 23, 2018 and is celebrated as “one of the keenest minds of the nonviolent revolution.”
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/walker-wyatt-tee https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Walker_Wyatt_Tee_1929-https://www.nps.gov/features/malu/feat0002/wof/Wyatt_Walker.htm
August 15th 1965: Watts Riots
On this day in 1965, the Watts riots were continuing to rock the Los Angeles area. These riots began on August 11th and continued until August 16th. They would result in the deaths of 34 individuals, the injuries of 1,032 individuals and the arrests of 3,438 individuals. Almost 4,000 members of the National Guard were called upon to suppress these riots and over $40 million dollars in damage resulted. Most of those killed and injured were African-Americans.
These riots began on August 11th after Marquette Frye, an African-American male, was pulled over for supposed reckless driving. Frye ended up in a heated argument with officers which escalated into a physical altercation. Many claimed police had also hurt a pregnant woman and riots ensued. Although this incident began the riots, many scholars agree that the riots were a culmination of the racial discrimination faced by African-Americans around the Los Angeles area during the 1960s.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Watts-Riots-of-1965
August 14th, 1935: FDR Signs the Social Security Act
On this day in history, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act, setting forth legislation that established a system of old age benefits for workers which extended to include the unemployed, dependents, and people with disabilities. As a response to the Great Depression, the Social Security Act was a part of the New Deal, a series of programs and projects to stabilize the economy and provide relief to those who were suffering. The new law put forth the Social Security program, an old-age pension program funded by payroll taxes. Before, the elderly regularly faced the possibility of poverty after retirement. Now, the pensions were funded by contributions in the form of taxes on workers’ wages and employers’ payrolls. The law was faced by opposition who considered this legislation a breach into the private sphere and an abuse of federal power. The Social Security Act also established an unemployment insurance program, providing income to the unemployed and the Aid to Dependent Children program, promoting the welfare of children and security for families of single mothers.
Enacted by President Roosevelt, the Social Security Act of 1935 provided relief to the American people, quelling the fear of poverty that was exacerbated by the Great Depression.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=68
https://www.ssa.gov/history/50ed.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Social-Security-Act-United-States-1935
August 13, 1993: U.S. Court of Appeals Rules Congress Must Save All Emails
On this day in 1993, in the case Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed the decision of the federal district court that all federal agencies, including Congress and the White House, must retain all official emails. The National Security Council and the Executive Office of the President had been using electronic communications systems such as email for their correspondences since the mid-1980s for improved efficiency. Towards the end of the Reagan administration, the National Security Archive, a research library of declassified U.S. government records, learned that all emails unrelated to the ongoing Iran-Contra investigation backup tapes were going to be erased. In the 1985 Iran-Contra scandal, John Poindexter, President Reagan’s national security adviser, set up a system that allowed the Marine Corps. Lt. Col. Oliver North to bypass normal channels and exchange direct emails to monitor the diversion of funds from Iranian weapons sales to the Nicaraguan Contras. When the scandal broke, Poindexter deleted over 5,000 emails, unaware that the messages still existed on backup tapes.
The Iran-Contra scandal revealed the importance of preserving government electronic records, so once the National Security Archive discovered that other emails would be deleted, it filed several Freedom of Information Act requests on January 19, 1989, the final day of the Reagan administration, for all material on the electronic communications systems of the National Security Council and the Executive Office of the President. It also filed a lawsuit for a declaration that all electronic documents stored on the electronic communications systems are federal and presidential records as well as an injunction prohibiting the destruction of those documents. The district court ruled in its favor and when the defendants appealed, the Court of Appeals affirmed the decision.
For more information, please visit:
https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/1/1274/574897/
https://www.politico.com/story/2016/08/us-court-of-appeals-rules-all-federal-units-must-retain-emails-aug-13-1993-226870
August 12, 2013: NYPD’s “Stop and Frisk” Ruled Unconstitutional
On this day in 2013, a federal court ruled the NYPD’s “stop and frisk” policy unconstitutional. This policy was the source of nationwide controversy and attention.
The NYPD’s “stop and frisk” policy permitted officers to stop and pat down individuals on streets in attempts to find weapons and other pieces of evidence of criminal activity. While this policy was in operation, many public officials and NYPD leaders contended that it was necessary to protect the citizens of NYC. Civil Rights leaders questioned and disputed this claim. These leaders saw the policy at large, as a way to target communities with large populations of people of color.
The lawsuit, which concluded with a ruling that the policy was unconstitutional, produced evidence showing the racial disparity in the implementation of the policy. For example, “although black and Latino people made up fifty-two percent of New York City’s population, they constituted eighty-five percent of those stopped under the policy between 2004 and 2009." More data established that the racial composition of a neighborhood was a better predictor of its rate of “stop and frisk” than its crime rate. Along with this data, further evidence ascertained the unconstitutional nature through which this policy was implemented in NYC for many years.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/13/nyregion/stop-and-frisk-practice-violated-rights-judge-rules.html
https://ccrjustice.org/home/press-center/press-releases/landmark-decision-judge-rules-nypd-stop-and-frisk-practices
https://www.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/gender-sexuality/racial-justice-lit-wkshp/case_study_-_floyd_v._city_of_ny.pdf
August 9, 1974: President Richard Nixon Resigns
On August 8, 1974, President Richard Nixon gave his official resignation speech, informing the nation that he would be resigning from his presidency at noon the next day. On August 9, Vice President Gerald Ford was sworn in as the new President to complete the remaining 2 years of Nixon’s term. Nixon’s presidential resignation was the only one to have occurred in U.S. history, and came in response to the Watergate affair – a major American political scandal that charged Nixon with misusing government agencies and covering up crimes in 1972. In his speech, Nixon announced his hopes that, by resigning, he would “[hasten] the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.” Nixon was later pardoned by President Ford for any crimes he may have committed while in office.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/080974-3.htm
https://watergate.info/resignation
August 8, 1974: Nixon Gives Resignation Speech
On this day in 1974, the thirty-seventh president of the United States, Richard Nixon, resigned as a response to the Watergate Scandal. The Watergate Scandal occurred after it was revealed that Nixon and his government were involved in the cover-up of a break- in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Complex.
Richard Nixon’s resignation speech was a public address given on August 8, 1974 in the White House Oval Office. The Watergate Scandal occurred during Nixon’s controversial re-election campaign, which had prompted the Congress to initiate impeachment proceedings against him.
"By taking this action," he said, "I hope that I will have hastened the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America." Vice President Ford, who spoke a short time later in front of his Alexandria home, announced that Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger will remain in his Cabinet. The President-to-be praised Mr. Nixon's sacrifice for the country and called it "one of the saddest incidents that I've ever witnessed." Mr. Nixon said he decided he must resign when he concluded that he no longer had "a strong enough political base in the Congress" to make it possible for him to complete his term of office. Declaring that he has never been a quitter, Mr. Nixon said that to leave office before the end of his term " is abhorrent to every instinct in my body." But "as President, I must put the interests of America first," he said.
While the President acknowledged that some of his judgments "were wrong," he did not confess the "high crimes and misdemeanors" with which the House Judiciary Committee charged him in its bill of impeachment. He omitted all Judiciary Committee charges including the cover-up of Watergate crimes and the misuse of government agencies such as the FBI, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Internal Revenue Service.
Although Nixon was the ninth president not to complete the four-year term since the presidency was established in 1789, he was the first to do so for a reason other than dying in office. His presidential resignation remains the only one in U.S. history.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.timeanddate.com/on-this-day/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/080974-3.htm
https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/richard-nixon-resignation-letter-gerald-ford-pardon/
August 7th, 2010: Elena Kagan Sworn in as Supreme Court Justice
On this day in history, Elena Kagan was sworn in as the 112th justice and fourth woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. Justice Kagan was nominated by President Barack Obama to replace Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens. She was confirmed by a 63-37 vote by the Senate. Justice Kagan, while having an extensive and impressive career as the dean of Harvard, Clinton’s counsel, and solicitor general, is unique in the fact that she had no prior judicial experience. This had drawn ire from her critics but allowed Kagan to have a diverse viewpoint when analyzing the law. She is an advocate for being a consensus builder, rarely writing concurring opinions as it takes away from the consensus of the court. Justice Kagan is known to be the justice most up to date with contemporary culture and technology. She is known for her majority opinion in Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, where she constantly added Spider-man references, a testament to her fondness of comic books. She also wrote the majority opinion for Miller v. Alabama; Jackson v. Hobbs, holding that life without parole was a disproportionate punishment for juveniles, but not for adult offenders.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129005079
https://www.oyez.org/justices/elena_kagan
https://ballotpedia.org/Elena_Kagan
August 6, 1965: Voting Rights Act of 1965 Signed into Law
On this day in 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law. The Act prohibited discriminatory voting practices that had been adopted by southern states after the Civil War, such as mandatory literacy tests and poll taxes. These practices specifically targeted African Americans, preventing them from exercising their constitutional right to vote. In a speech to Congress on March 15, 1965, President Johnson called for voting rights legislation after several peaceful participants marching from Selma to Montgomery were murdered by Alabama state troopers for advocating for their voting rights. In his speech, Johnson addressed the unfairness of literacy tests and other mechanisms preventing African Americans from voting. He discussed how election officials would tell black voters that they had gotten the date, time, or polling location wrong and would force some voters to recite the entire Constitution or explain complex state laws. These practices were the reason why so few African Americans were registered voters and why African Americans had very little political power.
On May 26, 1965, the Voting Rights Act was passed in the Senate by a 77-19 vote. It was then debated in the House of Representatives for more than a month, eventually passing by a vote of 333-85 on July 9, 1965. In a ceremony with various civil rights leaders present (including Martin Luther King Jr.), Johnson signed the Act into law on August 6. The act nationally prohibited the denial or abridgment of the right to vote on the basis of race or color. It was immediately challenged in the courts, but the Supreme Court issued several decisions upholding its constitutionality. The passage of the law led to the registration of a quarter of a million new African American voters by the end of 1965. By 1966, only 4 out of the 13 southern states had less than 50% of African Americans registered to vote. The act was further amended and strengthened in 1970, 1975, 1982, and 2006, allowing for protections for language minority citizens and renewing various provisions.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/voting-rights-act
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=100
https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/voting-rights-1965
https://www.justice.gov/crt/history-federal-voting-rights-laws
August 5th, 2012: Wisconsin Sikh Temple Shooting
On this day in 2012, a mass shooting took place in a Sikh temple located in Oak Creek, Wisconsin. Wade Michael Page, a 40-year-old U.S. Army veteran, entered a Sikh temple and fatally killed 6 individuals and wounded 4 others. Page committed suicide after a responding officer to the scene shot him in the hip.
Although Page provided no motive or manifesto as we have seen with other mass shooters, Page had clear ties to white supremacist and Neo-Nazi groups. He was a member of the Hammerskins, a white supremacist group based out of Dallas and had a strong presence in the white power music scene. He was a member of Neo-Nazi bands such as End Apathy, Definite Hate and Blue Eyed Devils. Page legally purchased the handgun used in the attack and passed all necessary background checks before buying it. The owner of the store stated that Page's demeanor and appearance "raised no eyebrows whatsoever". Many have speculated he engaged in the shooting because he believed the temple housed Muslims who he hated because of the events of 9/11 by radical Muslim extremists. If this is true, Page himself did not understand who his enemies were. He did not realize he was attacking individuals of a whole different faith.
Many vigils were held in remembrance of the victims, however, real legislative action, as we have seen in other mass shootings, was limited. The most notable being Senator Dick Durbin convening a congressional hearing to address hate crimes before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights and Human Rights.
Following the two recent mass shootings over the past few days its important to remember these types of mass shootings are nothing new.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2012/sikh-temple-killer-wade-michael-page-radicalized-army
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/us/shooting-reported-at-temple-in-wisconsin.html
August 2, 1776: Declaration of Independence Signed
On this day in 1776, a majority of the Second Continental Congress assembled at Independence Hall to sign the United States Declaration of Independence. Although we celebrate July 4, 1776 as our Independence Day, the Continental Congress declared independence on July 2, 1776, and signed the Declaration in an official signing event on August 2nd of that year. Of the 56 official signers of the Declaration, 50 signed the document on August 2nd; the remaining signatures were signed after this date, with the last signature collected in January of 1777, seven months after the Declaration of Independence had been approved by Congress. By signing the Declaration of Independence, these signers committed “our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor” to our independence.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/declara2.html
https://www.nps.gov/articles/engrossed.htm
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-declaration-of-independence-is-officially-signed
July 31st, 2014: Executive Order 13673
Executive Order 13673 or the Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces order, was an executive order issued under the Obama Administration on July 31, 2014, to increase regulations of prospective federal contractors to disclose labor law violations and give agencies more guidance on the review of labor violations when awarding federal contracts. It also ensured that workers are given the necessary information during pay periods to verify the accuracy of their paychecks and for companies to not require their employees to enter in pre-dispute arbitration agreements, essentially “cover-up clauses,” for disputes arising out of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act or from torts related to sexual assault or harassment. However in 2017, the Trump Administration promptly signed an executive order revoking the Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces Order. This order directly guided the Department of Labor and other executive agencies to rescind any guidelines or policies implementing the revoked Obama order. With this act, the necessity of wage transparency was denied and employers now have better protection from Title VII discrimination claims by their employees.
Executive Order 13673 was an attempt by the Obama Administration to increase the stability and safety in the workplace given by federal contractors to their employees. The reversal of this order by the Trump Administration took away protections from employees and marked a checkpoint in the Trump Administration’s willingness to yield its executive power.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/janetwburns/2017/04/04/trump-order-drops-pesky-regulations-on-equal-pay-sexual-harassment/#3dcd9f8e5c10
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/11/06/2017-23588/guidance-for-executive-order-13673-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/31/fact-sheet-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces-executive-order
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/31/executive-order-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces
July 30, 1619: First American legislative assembly meets in Virginia
400 years ago, on this day in 1619, the first elected legislative assembly in America convened in Jamestown, Virginia. In 1618, the Virginia Company created the Great Charter, which abolished martial law and called for the creation of a legislative assembly. It authorized the appointed Virginian governor George Yeardley to summon an assembly to legislate. Yeardley arrived in Virginia in April 1619 and announced the Virginia Company’s decision, asking each of the eleven settlements in the Virginia colony to send two burgesses, or representatives, to meet in Jamestown for the first General Assembly. At the time, only white men who owned a certain amount of property were eligible to vote for burgesses. Once all the representatives were elected, the 22 men met with George Yeardley and his council along with the colony’s secretary and treasurer in Jamestown, thus creating the House of Burgesses.
The first law passed by the House of Burgesses required tobacco to be sold for at least three shillings per pound. The following laws in the first six-day assembly session included prohibitions against gambling, drunkenness, and idleness along with a law that named the Church of England as the official church of Virginia. Other laws settled disputes between colonists, issued regulations against immoral practices like swearing, and made the observation of Sabbath mandatory. All laws passed had to be approved by the London Company. When the British Crown revoked the Virginia Company’s charter in 1624, the House of Burgesses continued to assemble without official royal authorization. Members began to fear that the lack of official royal backing would invalidate the authority of the laws passed by the assembly or even abolish the assembly completely, so representatives were sent to England to seek royal authorization and support. King Charles I did not rule on the issue at the time, but the assembly continued to meet in 1625 and 1626. In 1627, the assembly received recognition when the king asked it to assist in regulating the tobacco trade. New elections were held and the assembly began to convene annually.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/House_of_Burgesses
https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/members-of-the-jamestown-first-representative-assembly.htm
https://www.landofthebrave.info/house-of-burgesses.htm
July 29th, 1880: A Black Mother Searches for Daughters After Being Sold During Enslavement
On this day in 1880, Nancy Williams, a black woman who was sold into slavery, took out an ad in a Philadelphia newspaper looking for information about her two daughters, Millie and Mary. Nancy had been sold away from her daughters in 1860 and had not heard from either of them since. In an effort to reconnect with her daughters, Nancy’s ad detailed the ages of her daughters and her journey since being forced to leave them. The ad begins by stating how in 1860 in Missouri a man named Jacob Certain sold her to a man named Buren Wardell, who lived in Memphis, Tennessee. The ad goes on to detail the ages of her daughters when she was forced to leave them with Millie being nine years old and Mary being six years old. Given that it had been 20 years since she had seen her daughters it is understandable that Nancy would not have much information about her daughters or any specific physical/facial indicators that would point them out.
Many enslaved people were forced to separate from their family members. This was a result of enslaved persons being given different degrees of value because of factors such as productivity, strength and ultimately their ability to help their owners make a profit. Due to this, men and women alike were sold away to different slave owners depending on their skills and the skills slave owners needed at any one particular time. After emancipation, many ads such as the one from Nancy were placed in newspapers throughout the country. An endless list of mothers, fathers, brothers and sisters searched endlessly for their loved ones, however few were successful in reconnecting with any family members.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jul/29
July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9981
On this day in 1948, President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981, which called for “equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin” and committed the government to abolishing racial segregation in the U.S. military. The executive order came as a response to multiple findings that the Armed Services should immediately end discrimination and segregation based on race by both a review board chaired by General Alvan Gillem, Jr. and by the President’s Committee on Civil Rights. By signing Executive Order 9981, President Truman established the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, which would determine and implement the best ways to integrate the armed forces. While there was initially significant resistance to the order from the military, the army announced that it had integrated more than 90% of its troops in October 1953.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/executive-order-9981-desegregating-u-s-armed-forces-video
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=84
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Executive-Order-9981
July 25, 1952: Puerto Rico becomes self- governing US commonwealth
On this day in 1952, it was Constitution day for Puerto Ricans. After a number of years filled with revolts, including the Jayuya Uprising against the United States, Puerto Rico officially became a self- governing U.S. commonwealth. The head of state, however, still did remain George Bush and the Federal Legislative Branch pertained to the United States Congress.
Also on July 25, this time in 1898, during the Spanish- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing in Guanica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris, which went into effect on April 11, 1899. Since then, the United States had retained control over Puerto Rico.
However, on February 6, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention by an 82 percent positive vote in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish–American War, until then which had been celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
The country is currently run by the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico who holds control of the Puerto Rican House of Representatives and Senate who are campaigning for the right of Statehood for Puerto Rico.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/july25th.html
https://www.britannica.com/place/Puerto-Rico/The-commonwealth
https://www.puertoricoreport.com/the-1952-puerto-rico-
constitution-a-new-commonwealth-in-name-only/#.XToNYpNKjOQ
July 24th, 1974: United States v. Nixon
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized the limitations of “executive privilege” within the position of the President. This decision came in the final stages during the impeachment process of President Richard Nixon and the indictment of officials that were involved in the Watergate scandal. The Watergate scandal of 1972 revealed the abuses of power by the Nixon Administration, including the burglary of the Democratic National Committee, resistance to investigative probes, and using the FBI, CIA, and IRS as political weapons. A Nixon appointed prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, obtained a subpoena ordering Nixon to release audio tapes of conversations recorded by President Nixon in the White House. Nixon argued that “executive privilege” gave him the discretion to withhold sensitive information from Congress and the Supreme Court, in order to keep confidential communications in the executive branch and secure national interest. After having his motion to withhold denied by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Nixon appealed directly to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court did recognize the existence of a limited executive privilege in areas of military or diplomatic affairs, but this could not overrule “the fundamental demands of due process of law in the fair administration of justice.” Nixon’s generalized need for confidentiality could not sustain an absolute, unqualified, presidential privilege. Promptly, President Nixon was ordered to turn in the audio tapes and he resigned sixteen days later on August 9, 1974.
In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court validated the concept of executive privilege while emphasizing its limitations under the due process of law mandated by the Constitution.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1973/73-1766
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/anniversary-of-united-states-v-nixon
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/418/683
July 23, 1967: Race Riots in Detroit
On this day in 1967, the Detroit Race Riot of 1967 began in Detroit, Michigan. Racial discrimination and police brutality were extremely common in Detroit, so during the civil rights movement, racial tensions were building. In the early hours of Sunday, July 23rd, 1967, Detroit police officers raided a “blind pig”, an illegal after-hours bar in the city where a party was being hosted to celebrate the return of two Vietnam War veterans. The police arrested all 82 African Americans in attendance. While the arrests were taking place, a crowd gathered outside the bar. Eventually, an empty bottle was thrown at a police car and a wastebasket was thrown through a storefront window, triggering a slew of break-ins, looting, and arson. Violence grew rapidly and more police officers were dispatched to the area to control the crowds. As the day progressed, violence escalated and police officers reported injuries from the stones, bottles, and bricks being thrown at them. Firefighters attempting to respond to fire alarms were also injured by thrown objects. As a result, the fires spread and several homes and buildings burned down. Detroit mayor Jerome Cavanaugh called for more force to be used against the crowds, requesting the National Guard to come to Detroit and quell the violence. Cavanaugh then instituted a curfew from 9 pm to 5 am. 7 minutes into the curfew, a 16 year old African American boy became the first gunshot victim. Gun violence grew as several store looters were shot by store owners.
Michigan governor George Romney ordered 800 state police officers and 8,000 National Guardsmen to the city, and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered in 4,700 paratroopers from the U.S. Army to end the violence. After five days, the riots ended with 33 African Americans and 10 white Americans dead and 1,189 people injured. Over 7,200 people were arrested and the total property damage was estimated to be about $32 million. After the riots, activism and community engagement increased drastically in Detroit. As more white people left the city in white flight, the city’s demographics began to shift and the first black mayor of Detroit, Coleman A. Young, was elected.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/detroit-race-riot-1967/
https://detroithistorical.org/learn/encyclopedia-of-detroit/uprising-1967
https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/1967-detroit-riots
July 22nd, 1937: U.S. Senate Kills FDR’s Court-packing Scheme
On this day in 1937, the U.S. Senate voted down the Judiciary Reorganization Bill which included FDR’s infamous ‘court-packing’ provisions aimed at increasing the number of justices on the Supreme Court. The U.S. Senate sent this bill back to the Senate Judiciary Committee and specifically called for the exclusion of such ‘court-packing’ provisions. Upon review, the Senate Judiciary Committee called the President’s provisions “a measure which should be so emphatically rejected that its parallel will never again be presented to the free representatives of the free people of America.” Many on both sides of the aisle saw these provisions as completely unacceptable and as extreme versions of executive overreach. If FDR’s provisions were passed by Congress they likely would have worked to pack the Supreme Court with supporters of FDR who would have upheld much of his legislation.
The ‘court-packing’ provisions within FDR’s bill were largely a response to the conservative-leaning Supreme Court during this time repeatedly striking down parts of his “New Deal” programs and projects which worked to counter the devastating effects of the Great Depression. The conservative wing of the Supreme Court saw these New Deal reforms as an expansion of both the size and power of the federal government which did not align with their values. Thus, these justices targeted FDR’s New Deal reforms like the National Recovery Administration, the industrial redevelopment agency and the Agricultural Adjustment Act.
The Supreme Court has remained at 9 justices and it will be interesting to see if this number changes in the future.
For more information, please visit:
https://blog.legalsolutions.thomsonreuters.com/legal-research/today-in-1937-senate-rejects-fdrs-bid-to-pack-supreme-court/
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-franklin-roosevelt-clashed-with-the-supreme-court-and-lost-78497994/
July 19, 1848: Seneca Falls Convention
On this day in 1848, the first women’s rights convention in the United States was held in Seneca Falls, New York. This convention, organized by active abolitionists and civil rights leaders like Elizabeth Stanton, attracted over 300 attendees. The Declaration of Sentiments was established during the Seneca Falls Convention, calling for women to fight for their right to equality under the U.S. Constitution. The Declaration outlined 19 grievances that destroyed a woman’s confidence and self-respect, such as the denial of an education, inferior role in the church, and the lack of a right to vote. The convention also unanimously passed 11 of 12 resolutions, demanding women to be regarded as equal to men by having equal access to jobs and wages, equal rights within the church, and the right to vote. Many historians now credit the Seneca Falls Convention as the launch of the women’s suffrage movement in the United States, and as a cornerstone that ultimately led to the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/seneca-falls-convention
https://www.britannica.com/event/Seneca-Falls-Convention
July 18, 1947: Presidential Succession Act
On this day in 1947, President Harry Truman signed the Presidential Succession Act. The act gave Congress the power to change the order of who can succeed the President and Vice President in office, thus, more closely reflecting the ideas of the Founding Fathers. Presidential succession refers to the procedure for replacing the president and/or vice- president in the event of death or some other form of removal. The original act of 1792 had placed the Senate president pro- tempore and the Speaker of the House in the line of succession, but the 1947 law reinserted those officials but placed the Speaker ahead of the president pro- tempore.
Throughout the 1800s, the Senate assumed it was empowered to elect a president pro- tempore only during the absence of a vice president. However, some questions remained unanswered: since Congress was customarily out of session for half of each year, what would happen in that era of high mortality rates if both the president and vice president died during the adjournment period and there was no designated president pro- tempore? The Senate had, for many years, relied upon an elaborate charade whereby the vice president would voluntarily leave the chamber before the end of a session to enable the Senate to elect a president pro- tempore. Fearing that the presidency might thus accidentally slip into the hands of the opposition, vice presidents occasionally refused to perform this little courtesy when the opposing party held the Senate majority.
Harry Truman took office after Franklin Roosevelt’s death in 1945. Once he became President, he pressed for a return to the succession line from the 1792 act with one important difference: The House Speaker would be the third-in-line for the White House, followed by the Senate President Pro Tempore, thus flipping the order. Soon after this proposal, Congress passed a revised version of this plan, which was signed by Truman and enacted on July 18, 1947. There would be no special election provision, and Cabinet officers, based on their department’s tenure, followed the House Speaker and the Senate President Pro Tempore in the line of succession.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Presidential_Succession_Act.htm
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h745.html
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-truman-and-congress-decide-the-line-of-presidential-succession
July 17th, 2014: “I Can’t Breathe” The Death of Eric Garner
On this day in history, Eric Garner was approached by police officers on Staten Island, New York, who then proceeded to arrest Garner for allegedly selling untaxed cigarettes. The officers engaged with Garner, placing him in a choke hold and restraining him on the ground. Garner spoke the words “I can’t breathe” eleven times, prompting officers to call an ambulance. Paramedics arrived, but failed to administer CPR in an immediate manner. Garner died at the hospital shortly after. The Richmond County Grand Jury found that there was probable cause to indict criminal homicide and verified that the use of choke holds was a practice banned by the NYPD. The medical examiner confirmed that the choke hold used by Officer Daniel Pantaleo was the cause of Eric Garner’s death. Officer Pantaleo has a history of misconduct, consisting of false arrests and civil rights abuse. However, the grand jury decided not to indict Officer Pantaleo, which incited the public to protest. The Department of Justice launched an independent investigation and as of July 16th, 2019, declined to file civil rights or criminal charges against Officer Pantaleo. A separate disciplinary hearing by the NYPD continues, with the most severe outcome for Officer Pantaleo, the loss of his job. Eric Garner’s death is an example of broken windows policing, an actual policing method introduced and legitimized by the state of New York. His death and Michael Brown’s death in 2014, galvanized the Black Lives Matter Movement into a movement that is influencing every aspect of people’s lives.
Eric Garner’s death further brought the reality of the African American community into the light and continuously eroded the broken trust between them and the police.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.vox.com/identities/2019/5/17/18629673/eric-garner-daniel-pantaleo-trial-chokehold-nypd
https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/new-york-city-officer-eric-garner-s-chokehold-death-won-n1030321
https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/2014/12/eric-garner-case-fact-sheet
https://www.npr.org/2019/07/17/742473964/5-years-after-eric-garners-death-activists-continue-fight-for-another-day-to-liv
July 16, 1862: Activist Ida B. Wells is born in Mississippi
On this day, journalist, abolitionist, and feminist Ida B. Wells was born in Mississippi in 1862. She was born into slavery during the Civil War. Her parents were politically active in the Reconstruction Era after the war ended, and they encouraged her to attend college. Wells attended Rust College but she was expelled due to a dispute with the university’s president. When her parents and infant brother died from yellow fever, Wells started to work as a teacher so she could support her siblings and keep the family together.
Wells began her involvement in civil rights when she filed a lawsuit in 1884 against a train car company in Memphis for throwing her off a first-class train even though she had a ticket. She won the case in a local court but on appeal, the court overturned the ruling. The event led her to begin protesting Jim Crow laws and the treatment of black southerners. When one of her friends was lynched, Wells decided to investigate white mob violence and the reasons why black men were lynched. She investigated several cases and published her findings in a pamphlet and local newspapers. Her work enraged locals who retaliated by burning her press and driving her to move to Chicago. In 1894, she and other prominent African American civil rights leaders called for the boycott of the World’s Columbian Exposition, the world’s fair in Chicago, for excluding African Americans from the exposition committee and negatively portraying the black community.
Wells also engaged in activism abroad; she confronted white suffragists who ignored lynching and established the British Anti-Lynching Society in England in 1894. She was frequently ostracized by women’s suffrage organizations in the U.S., but she remained active in the suffrage movement. In 1896, she founded the National Association of Colored Women, and in 1909, she was one of two women who signed for the call for the establishment of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Towards the end of her life, she focused her work on urban reform in Chicago. She died on March 25, 1931 with four children. She was married to Ferdinand L. Barrett, a well-known attorney and newspaper editor.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ida-b-wells-barnett
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931/
http://idabwellsmuseum.org/ida-b-wells-barnett/
July 15 1954: Phase Two of the Mass Deportation in the US
On this day in history in 1954, phase two of the project, cruelly called "Operation Wetback" was put into motion. The US Attorney General Herbert Brownell and Immigration and Naturalization Service Commissioner Joseph Swing began the second phase of an immigration law enforcement initiative in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. This operation targeted Mexican immigrants in California and Arizona and used various tactics to locate and deport anyone they suspected of being in the United States without legal status. These tactics included forcing identification from those they believed to be Mexican, even stating that they would pursue "Mexican-looking people," invading homes in the middle of the night and raiding Mexican businesses. By the end of “Operation Wetback,” almost 200,000 Mexican immigrants had returned to Mexico, some were undocumented but others that returned were American Citizens. Brownell was quoted saying that the Mexican immigrants were "displacing domestic workers, affecting work conditions, spreading disease, and contributing to crime rates." By the end of 1954, over one million Mexican immigrants were deported and done on the deportee's expense and costing some migrants every penny the had earned in the U.S. At the end, Brownell was praised for being successful, swift, and skillful.
The massive movement by the Trump Administration to deport thousands of Mexican and Central American immigrants is history repeating itself. The "operation" deported many US citizens, it is a scary thought to fathom that the government can revoke someone's citizenship because of their race or because they fit a description.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jul/15
July 10, 1966: Chicago Freedom Movement
On this day in history, the Chicago Freedom Movement led by a joint effort from activist groups like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and figureheads of the Civil Rights Movement such as Martin Luther King Jr., came to a peak by holding its biggest rally and making known the movement’s demands to Chicago City Hall. The Chicago Freedom Movement aimed to address the economic exploitation of African Americans in the North by using non-violent methods. The African American community in Chicago was exposed to de facto segregation in education, housing, and employment. Fair housing practices became the primary focus, forming some of the demands made by the movement: a creation of a tenants’ union and a nondiscriminatory mortgage policy. However, the mass, non-violent protests were met with violence; race riots erupted in West Chicago and a prominent march led by King through an all white neighborhood, was met with racially fueled hostility, with the likes of bottles and bricks thrown at the demonstrators. Nevertheless, the movement made some progress in Chicago, the city making promises to build public housing in predominantly white areas and to make mortgages available, regardless of race or neighborhood. The effect of the Chicago Freedom Movement is undeniable in the passing of the Fair Housing Act in 1968.
Addressing the systematic racial inequalities of Chicago, the Chicago Freedom Movement set forth progress in a lasting manner, still seen today and emphasizing the ever present need for further change.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.gnofairhousing.org/2019/02/27/remembering-the-chicago-freedom-movement/
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/chicago-campaign
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/chicago-freedom-movement-1965-1967/
July 9, 1955: First African American Appointed as a White House Executive
On this day in 1955, Everett Frederic Morrow became the first African American to hold an executive position in the White House. He was the Administrative Officer for Special Projects as well as a speech writer in the Eisenhower Administration from 1955 to 1961. Born on April 9, 1909 in New Jersey, Morrow was the son of John Eugene Morrow, a Methodist minister, and Mary Ann Hayes, a farm worker and maid. He attended Bowdoin College and excelled in academics but had to leave college in his senior year to help his family. After college, he worked as a Wall Street bank messenger, a business manager of Opportunity Magazine, and a field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He joined the United States Army in 1942, where he served for four years before attending Rutgers Law School. He graduated law school in 1948 and completed a clerkship in New Jersey before briefly returning to the army to fight in the Korean War. He then became a public-affairs writer in the Columbia Broadcasting Company (CBS) in 1950. In 1952, Dwight Eisenhower’s presidential campaign hired Morrow as a personal adviser and administrative assistant. After the election, he was appointed as an advisor of Business Affairs in the Department of Commerce, a position he held until he became the Administrative Officer for Special Projects on July 9, 1955.
In the White House, he faced racial tensions and felt frustrated that so many African Americans were excluded from government positions. At the time, the Supreme Court had just made its landmark decision in favor of racial integration in Brown v. Board of Education, and the Montgomery Bus Boycotts had just begun. Throughout his time in the White House, Morrow strongly urged his colleagues and the Republican Party to advance racial integration and equal rights. He wrote an account of his experiences in the White House in his book “Black Man in the White House” which was published in 1963. After leaving the White House, Morrow became the Vice President of the African-American Institute in New York, a privately funded educational-cultural agency. He later worked with the Bank of America, where he was the first African American to be promoted to Vice President of its New York international subsidiary in 1964. He retired from the position in 1975 and worked as an executive in the Education Testing Service in Princeton, New Jersey. He died on July 20, 1994 in New York at the age of 88 and is survived by his wife, Catherine Gordon Morrow, sister, Nellie Parker, and brother, Dr. John Morrow.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.whitehousehistory.org/e-frederick-morrow-at-the-white-house
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/morrow-e-frederic-1909-1994/
https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/21/obituaries/e-frederic-morrow-88-aide-in-eisenhower-administration.html
July 8th 2011: The Death of the American Activist, Betty Ford
On this day in history, First Lady, Betty Ford passed away at the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, CA of natural causes. Throughout her life, Betty Ford was an outspoken activist for feminism and equal pay for all. After becoming First Lady, Betty was diagnosed with breast cancer. She became one of the first people in America to openly speak about her diagnoses, giving the illness a platform. Before Betty's openness about breast cancer, the country at large was reluctant to discuss breast cancer at all. Ford's vocalization left an important mark on the public. It demonstrated the power and platform a First Lady has in influencing the American people. Ford lobbied for the Equal Rights Amendment and for the Equal Pay Act. She was known to speak openly about women's reproductive rights and was an important supporter of Roe vs. Wade. Ford also spoke about pre-martial sex and recreational drug use in an effort to remove stigma. Her role awarded her the nickname "no lady" in recognition of her fierce opposition to unjust social norms and practices. In 1975, she was named Time magazine's woman of the year. In 1991, Ford received the President's Medal of Freedom for her efforts to promote public awareness and treatment of alcohol and drug addition. Later in her life, she established the Betty Ford Center for treatment of chemical dependency. She was known for her amazing work not only in the women's rights movement, but also in the struggle to remove the stigma surrounding drug addiction. Ford advocated for safe and accessible treatment facilities and fought against the disapproving, watchful eye of the public in regards to substance abuse. Ford is herald as one of America's greatest women's rights advocates.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.onthisday.com/people/betty-ford
https://www.biography.com/us-first-lady/betty-ford
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Betty-Ford
July 5, 1971: President Nixon Certifies the 26th Amendment
On this day in 1971, President Richard Nixon held a ceremony to officially certify the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which lowered the national voting age from 21 to 18 years old. The amendment had passed the Senate on March 10 in a 94-0 vote, and the House of Representatives in a 401-19 vote on March 23, 1971. State legislators quickly ratified the change, and by July 1, 1971, official ratification took effect after reaching the necessary three-fourths majority of state ratification. This change came as a response to a revived slogan – “old enough to fight, old enough to vote” – which referenced that men ineligible to vote by age were being drafted for the Vietnam War. During the signing ceremony, President Nixon stated his confidence in the youth and recognized the 11 million potential voters now added to the electorate, half of whom would vote in the 1972 presidential election.
For more information, please visit:
https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-26th-Amendment/
https://www.nytimes.com/1971/07/06/archives/front-page-1-no-title-nixon-hails-youth-vote-as-26th-amendment-is.html
https://www.nixonfoundation.org/1971/07/president-nixon-certifies-the-26th-amendment/
https://www.history.com/topics/1970s/voting-age-lowered-video
July 3, 2018: Trump Administration Rescinds College Guidelines on Race
On this day in history, the Trump Administration abandoned Obama Administration guidelines on using race as a factor in college admissions, therefore limiting affirmative action. The previous policies did not have the force of law, but encouraged consideration of race in college admissions, as the Obama Administration stated one of the goals of higher education institutions, is to foster diversity. Currently, the Department of Justice and Education made the changes to restore the rule of law and be more aligned with the ruling of the Supreme Court. The most recent Supreme Court decision on affirmative action, Fisher v. University of Texas, however, ruled that the consideration of race can be permitted in undergraduate admissions, permitted by the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Nevertheless, the federal government has now changed its official viewpoint on affirmative action, giving colleges the grounds to defend themselves from potential lawsuits over their admission policies. Former Attorney General Jeff Sessions has asserted the possible investigations by federal prosecutors that will arise if colleges do not adhere to more race-neutral guidelines.
In a reversal of guidelines, the Trump Administration limited the power of affirmative action and increased the contention surrounding this issue.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/03/us/politics/trump-affirmative-action-race-schools.html
https://www.apnews.com/fb0e61d53b374f98b8a5ae50e3ab5697
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2012/11-345
July 2, 1964: President Johnson signs Civil Rights Act of 1964
On this day in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act into law in a nationally televised White House ceremony. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended racial segregation, outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origins, and guaranteed equal voting rights. It also assured nondiscrimination in the distribution of funds under federally assisted programs. This event was a huge achievement brought about by the African American civil rights movement which had won thousands of supporters through rigorous organized activism. President John F. Kennedy had begun the process for pushing forward a new civil rights bill in the wake of the civil rights movement. As Kennedy’s vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson vowed to continue his work after his assassination in 1963. The bill faced huge opposition from Southern members in Congress who staged a 75-day filibuster in the Senate, one of the longest filibusters in U.S. history. However, both chambers eventually reached the two-thirds votes required to pass the bill. President Johnson signed the bill with at least 75 pens, which he handed out to congressional supporters of the bill and to prominent civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act
https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964
https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/civil-rights-act-1.html
Executive Order 13673 or the Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces order, was an executive order issued under the Obama Administration on July 31, 2014, to increase regulations of prospective federal contractors to disclose labor law violations and give agencies more guidance on the review of labor violations when awarding federal contracts. It also ensured that workers are given the necessary information during pay periods to verify the accuracy of their paychecks and for companies to not require their employees to enter in pre-dispute arbitration agreements, essentially “cover-up clauses,” for disputes arising out of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act or from torts related to sexual assault or harassment. However in 2017, the Trump Administration promptly signed an executive order revoking the Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces Order. This order directly guided the Department of Labor and other executive agencies to rescind any guidelines or policies implementing the revoked Obama order. With this act, the necessity of wage transparency was denied and employers now have better protection from Title VII discrimination claims by their employees.
Executive Order 13673 was an attempt by the Obama Administration to increase the stability and safety in the workplace given by federal contractors to their employees. The reversal of this order by the Trump Administration took away protections from employees and marked a checkpoint in the Trump Administration’s willingness to yield its executive power.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/janetwburns/2017/04/04/trump-order-drops-pesky-regulations-on-equal-pay-sexual-harassment/#3dcd9f8e5c10
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/11/06/2017-23588/guidance-for-executive-order-13673-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/31/fact-sheet-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces-executive-order
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/31/executive-order-fair-pay-and-safe-workplaces
July 30, 1619: First American legislative assembly meets in Virginia
400 years ago, on this day in 1619, the first elected legislative assembly in America convened in Jamestown, Virginia. In 1618, the Virginia Company created the Great Charter, which abolished martial law and called for the creation of a legislative assembly. It authorized the appointed Virginian governor George Yeardley to summon an assembly to legislate. Yeardley arrived in Virginia in April 1619 and announced the Virginia Company’s decision, asking each of the eleven settlements in the Virginia colony to send two burgesses, or representatives, to meet in Jamestown for the first General Assembly. At the time, only white men who owned a certain amount of property were eligible to vote for burgesses. Once all the representatives were elected, the 22 men met with George Yeardley and his council along with the colony’s secretary and treasurer in Jamestown, thus creating the House of Burgesses.
The first law passed by the House of Burgesses required tobacco to be sold for at least three shillings per pound. The following laws in the first six-day assembly session included prohibitions against gambling, drunkenness, and idleness along with a law that named the Church of England as the official church of Virginia. Other laws settled disputes between colonists, issued regulations against immoral practices like swearing, and made the observation of Sabbath mandatory. All laws passed had to be approved by the London Company. When the British Crown revoked the Virginia Company’s charter in 1624, the House of Burgesses continued to assemble without official royal authorization. Members began to fear that the lack of official royal backing would invalidate the authority of the laws passed by the assembly or even abolish the assembly completely, so representatives were sent to England to seek royal authorization and support. King Charles I did not rule on the issue at the time, but the assembly continued to meet in 1625 and 1626. In 1627, the assembly received recognition when the king asked it to assist in regulating the tobacco trade. New elections were held and the assembly began to convene annually.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/House_of_Burgesses
https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/members-of-the-jamestown-first-representative-assembly.htm
https://www.landofthebrave.info/house-of-burgesses.htm
July 29th, 1880: A Black Mother Searches for Daughters After Being Sold During Enslavement
On this day in 1880, Nancy Williams, a black woman who was sold into slavery, took out an ad in a Philadelphia newspaper looking for information about her two daughters, Millie and Mary. Nancy had been sold away from her daughters in 1860 and had not heard from either of them since. In an effort to reconnect with her daughters, Nancy’s ad detailed the ages of her daughters and her journey since being forced to leave them. The ad begins by stating how in 1860 in Missouri a man named Jacob Certain sold her to a man named Buren Wardell, who lived in Memphis, Tennessee. The ad goes on to detail the ages of her daughters when she was forced to leave them with Millie being nine years old and Mary being six years old. Given that it had been 20 years since she had seen her daughters it is understandable that Nancy would not have much information about her daughters or any specific physical/facial indicators that would point them out.
Many enslaved people were forced to separate from their family members. This was a result of enslaved persons being given different degrees of value because of factors such as productivity, strength and ultimately their ability to help their owners make a profit. Due to this, men and women alike were sold away to different slave owners depending on their skills and the skills slave owners needed at any one particular time. After emancipation, many ads such as the one from Nancy were placed in newspapers throughout the country. An endless list of mothers, fathers, brothers and sisters searched endlessly for their loved ones, however few were successful in reconnecting with any family members.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jul/29
July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9981
On this day in 1948, President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981, which called for “equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin” and committed the government to abolishing racial segregation in the U.S. military. The executive order came as a response to multiple findings that the Armed Services should immediately end discrimination and segregation based on race by both a review board chaired by General Alvan Gillem, Jr. and by the President’s Committee on Civil Rights. By signing Executive Order 9981, President Truman established the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, which would determine and implement the best ways to integrate the armed forces. While there was initially significant resistance to the order from the military, the army announced that it had integrated more than 90% of its troops in October 1953.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/executive-order-9981-desegregating-u-s-armed-forces-video
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=84
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Executive-Order-9981
July 25, 1952: Puerto Rico becomes self- governing US commonwealth
On this day in 1952, it was Constitution day for Puerto Ricans. After a number of years filled with revolts, including the Jayuya Uprising against the United States, Puerto Rico officially became a self- governing U.S. commonwealth. The head of state, however, still did remain George Bush and the Federal Legislative Branch pertained to the United States Congress.
Also on July 25, this time in 1898, during the Spanish- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing in Guanica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris, which went into effect on April 11, 1899. Since then, the United States had retained control over Puerto Rico.
However, on February 6, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention by an 82 percent positive vote in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish–American War, until then which had been celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
The country is currently run by the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico who holds control of the Puerto Rican House of Representatives and Senate who are campaigning for the right of Statehood for Puerto Rico.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/july25th.html
https://www.britannica.com/place/Puerto-Rico/The-commonwealth
https://www.puertoricoreport.com/the-1952-puerto-rico-
constitution-a-new-commonwealth-in-name-only/#.XToNYpNKjOQ
July 24th, 1974: United States v. Nixon
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized the limitations of “executive privilege” within the position of the President. This decision came in the final stages during the impeachment process of President Richard Nixon and the indictment of officials that were involved in the Watergate scandal. The Watergate scandal of 1972 revealed the abuses of power by the Nixon Administration, including the burglary of the Democratic National Committee, resistance to investigative probes, and using the FBI, CIA, and IRS as political weapons. A Nixon appointed prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, obtained a subpoena ordering Nixon to release audio tapes of conversations recorded by President Nixon in the White House. Nixon argued that “executive privilege” gave him the discretion to withhold sensitive information from Congress and the Supreme Court, in order to keep confidential communications in the executive branch and secure national interest. After having his motion to withhold denied by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Nixon appealed directly to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court did recognize the existence of a limited executive privilege in areas of military or diplomatic affairs, but this could not overrule “the fundamental demands of due process of law in the fair administration of justice.” Nixon’s generalized need for confidentiality could not sustain an absolute, unqualified, presidential privilege. Promptly, President Nixon was ordered to turn in the audio tapes and he resigned sixteen days later on August 9, 1974.
In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court validated the concept of executive privilege while emphasizing its limitations under the due process of law mandated by the Constitution.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1973/73-1766
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/anniversary-of-united-states-v-nixon
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/418/683
July 23, 1967: Race Riots in Detroit
On this day in 1967, the Detroit Race Riot of 1967 began in Detroit, Michigan. Racial discrimination and police brutality were extremely common in Detroit, so during the civil rights movement, racial tensions were building. In the early hours of Sunday, July 23rd, 1967, Detroit police officers raided a “blind pig”, an illegal after-hours bar in the city where a party was being hosted to celebrate the return of two Vietnam War veterans. The police arrested all 82 African Americans in attendance. While the arrests were taking place, a crowd gathered outside the bar. Eventually, an empty bottle was thrown at a police car and a wastebasket was thrown through a storefront window, triggering a slew of break-ins, looting, and arson. Violence grew rapidly and more police officers were dispatched to the area to control the crowds. As the day progressed, violence escalated and police officers reported injuries from the stones, bottles, and bricks being thrown at them. Firefighters attempting to respond to fire alarms were also injured by thrown objects. As a result, the fires spread and several homes and buildings burned down. Detroit mayor Jerome Cavanaugh called for more force to be used against the crowds, requesting the National Guard to come to Detroit and quell the violence. Cavanaugh then instituted a curfew from 9 pm to 5 am. 7 minutes into the curfew, a 16 year old African American boy became the first gunshot victim. Gun violence grew as several store looters were shot by store owners.
Michigan governor George Romney ordered 800 state police officers and 8,000 National Guardsmen to the city, and President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered in 4,700 paratroopers from the U.S. Army to end the violence. After five days, the riots ended with 33 African Americans and 10 white Americans dead and 1,189 people injured. Over 7,200 people were arrested and the total property damage was estimated to be about $32 million. After the riots, activism and community engagement increased drastically in Detroit. As more white people left the city in white flight, the city’s demographics began to shift and the first black mayor of Detroit, Coleman A. Young, was elected.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/detroit-race-riot-1967/
https://detroithistorical.org/learn/encyclopedia-of-detroit/uprising-1967
https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/1967-detroit-riots
July 22nd, 1937: U.S. Senate Kills FDR’s Court-packing Scheme
On this day in 1937, the U.S. Senate voted down the Judiciary Reorganization Bill which included FDR’s infamous ‘court-packing’ provisions aimed at increasing the number of justices on the Supreme Court. The U.S. Senate sent this bill back to the Senate Judiciary Committee and specifically called for the exclusion of such ‘court-packing’ provisions. Upon review, the Senate Judiciary Committee called the President’s provisions “a measure which should be so emphatically rejected that its parallel will never again be presented to the free representatives of the free people of America.” Many on both sides of the aisle saw these provisions as completely unacceptable and as extreme versions of executive overreach. If FDR’s provisions were passed by Congress they likely would have worked to pack the Supreme Court with supporters of FDR who would have upheld much of his legislation.
The ‘court-packing’ provisions within FDR’s bill were largely a response to the conservative-leaning Supreme Court during this time repeatedly striking down parts of his “New Deal” programs and projects which worked to counter the devastating effects of the Great Depression. The conservative wing of the Supreme Court saw these New Deal reforms as an expansion of both the size and power of the federal government which did not align with their values. Thus, these justices targeted FDR’s New Deal reforms like the National Recovery Administration, the industrial redevelopment agency and the Agricultural Adjustment Act.
The Supreme Court has remained at 9 justices and it will be interesting to see if this number changes in the future.
For more information, please visit:
https://blog.legalsolutions.thomsonreuters.com/legal-research/today-in-1937-senate-rejects-fdrs-bid-to-pack-supreme-court/
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-franklin-roosevelt-clashed-with-the-supreme-court-and-lost-78497994/
July 19, 1848: Seneca Falls Convention
On this day in 1848, the first women’s rights convention in the United States was held in Seneca Falls, New York. This convention, organized by active abolitionists and civil rights leaders like Elizabeth Stanton, attracted over 300 attendees. The Declaration of Sentiments was established during the Seneca Falls Convention, calling for women to fight for their right to equality under the U.S. Constitution. The Declaration outlined 19 grievances that destroyed a woman’s confidence and self-respect, such as the denial of an education, inferior role in the church, and the lack of a right to vote. The convention also unanimously passed 11 of 12 resolutions, demanding women to be regarded as equal to men by having equal access to jobs and wages, equal rights within the church, and the right to vote. Many historians now credit the Seneca Falls Convention as the launch of the women’s suffrage movement in the United States, and as a cornerstone that ultimately led to the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/seneca-falls-convention
https://www.britannica.com/event/Seneca-Falls-Convention
July 18, 1947: Presidential Succession Act
On this day in 1947, President Harry Truman signed the Presidential Succession Act. The act gave Congress the power to change the order of who can succeed the President and Vice President in office, thus, more closely reflecting the ideas of the Founding Fathers. Presidential succession refers to the procedure for replacing the president and/or vice- president in the event of death or some other form of removal. The original act of 1792 had placed the Senate president pro- tempore and the Speaker of the House in the line of succession, but the 1947 law reinserted those officials but placed the Speaker ahead of the president pro- tempore.
Throughout the 1800s, the Senate assumed it was empowered to elect a president pro- tempore only during the absence of a vice president. However, some questions remained unanswered: since Congress was customarily out of session for half of each year, what would happen in that era of high mortality rates if both the president and vice president died during the adjournment period and there was no designated president pro- tempore? The Senate had, for many years, relied upon an elaborate charade whereby the vice president would voluntarily leave the chamber before the end of a session to enable the Senate to elect a president pro- tempore. Fearing that the presidency might thus accidentally slip into the hands of the opposition, vice presidents occasionally refused to perform this little courtesy when the opposing party held the Senate majority.
Harry Truman took office after Franklin Roosevelt’s death in 1945. Once he became President, he pressed for a return to the succession line from the 1792 act with one important difference: The House Speaker would be the third-in-line for the White House, followed by the Senate President Pro Tempore, thus flipping the order. Soon after this proposal, Congress passed a revised version of this plan, which was signed by Truman and enacted on July 18, 1947. There would be no special election provision, and Cabinet officers, based on their department’s tenure, followed the House Speaker and the Senate President Pro Tempore in the line of succession.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Presidential_Succession_Act.htm
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h745.html
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-truman-and-congress-decide-the-line-of-presidential-succession
July 17th, 2014: “I Can’t Breathe” The Death of Eric Garner
On this day in history, Eric Garner was approached by police officers on Staten Island, New York, who then proceeded to arrest Garner for allegedly selling untaxed cigarettes. The officers engaged with Garner, placing him in a choke hold and restraining him on the ground. Garner spoke the words “I can’t breathe” eleven times, prompting officers to call an ambulance. Paramedics arrived, but failed to administer CPR in an immediate manner. Garner died at the hospital shortly after. The Richmond County Grand Jury found that there was probable cause to indict criminal homicide and verified that the use of choke holds was a practice banned by the NYPD. The medical examiner confirmed that the choke hold used by Officer Daniel Pantaleo was the cause of Eric Garner’s death. Officer Pantaleo has a history of misconduct, consisting of false arrests and civil rights abuse. However, the grand jury decided not to indict Officer Pantaleo, which incited the public to protest. The Department of Justice launched an independent investigation and as of July 16th, 2019, declined to file civil rights or criminal charges against Officer Pantaleo. A separate disciplinary hearing by the NYPD continues, with the most severe outcome for Officer Pantaleo, the loss of his job. Eric Garner’s death is an example of broken windows policing, an actual policing method introduced and legitimized by the state of New York. His death and Michael Brown’s death in 2014, galvanized the Black Lives Matter Movement into a movement that is influencing every aspect of people’s lives.
Eric Garner’s death further brought the reality of the African American community into the light and continuously eroded the broken trust between them and the police.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.vox.com/identities/2019/5/17/18629673/eric-garner-daniel-pantaleo-trial-chokehold-nypd
https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/new-york-city-officer-eric-garner-s-chokehold-death-won-n1030321
https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/2014/12/eric-garner-case-fact-sheet
https://www.npr.org/2019/07/17/742473964/5-years-after-eric-garners-death-activists-continue-fight-for-another-day-to-liv
July 16, 1862: Activist Ida B. Wells is born in Mississippi
On this day, journalist, abolitionist, and feminist Ida B. Wells was born in Mississippi in 1862. She was born into slavery during the Civil War. Her parents were politically active in the Reconstruction Era after the war ended, and they encouraged her to attend college. Wells attended Rust College but she was expelled due to a dispute with the university’s president. When her parents and infant brother died from yellow fever, Wells started to work as a teacher so she could support her siblings and keep the family together.
Wells began her involvement in civil rights when she filed a lawsuit in 1884 against a train car company in Memphis for throwing her off a first-class train even though she had a ticket. She won the case in a local court but on appeal, the court overturned the ruling. The event led her to begin protesting Jim Crow laws and the treatment of black southerners. When one of her friends was lynched, Wells decided to investigate white mob violence and the reasons why black men were lynched. She investigated several cases and published her findings in a pamphlet and local newspapers. Her work enraged locals who retaliated by burning her press and driving her to move to Chicago. In 1894, she and other prominent African American civil rights leaders called for the boycott of the World’s Columbian Exposition, the world’s fair in Chicago, for excluding African Americans from the exposition committee and negatively portraying the black community.
Wells also engaged in activism abroad; she confronted white suffragists who ignored lynching and established the British Anti-Lynching Society in England in 1894. She was frequently ostracized by women’s suffrage organizations in the U.S., but she remained active in the suffrage movement. In 1896, she founded the National Association of Colored Women, and in 1909, she was one of two women who signed for the call for the establishment of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Towards the end of her life, she focused her work on urban reform in Chicago. She died on March 25, 1931 with four children. She was married to Ferdinand L. Barrett, a well-known attorney and newspaper editor.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ida-b-wells-barnett
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931/
http://idabwellsmuseum.org/ida-b-wells-barnett/
July 15 1954: Phase Two of the Mass Deportation in the US
On this day in history in 1954, phase two of the project, cruelly called "Operation Wetback" was put into motion. The US Attorney General Herbert Brownell and Immigration and Naturalization Service Commissioner Joseph Swing began the second phase of an immigration law enforcement initiative in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. This operation targeted Mexican immigrants in California and Arizona and used various tactics to locate and deport anyone they suspected of being in the United States without legal status. These tactics included forcing identification from those they believed to be Mexican, even stating that they would pursue "Mexican-looking people," invading homes in the middle of the night and raiding Mexican businesses. By the end of “Operation Wetback,” almost 200,000 Mexican immigrants had returned to Mexico, some were undocumented but others that returned were American Citizens. Brownell was quoted saying that the Mexican immigrants were "displacing domestic workers, affecting work conditions, spreading disease, and contributing to crime rates." By the end of 1954, over one million Mexican immigrants were deported and done on the deportee's expense and costing some migrants every penny the had earned in the U.S. At the end, Brownell was praised for being successful, swift, and skillful.
The massive movement by the Trump Administration to deport thousands of Mexican and Central American immigrants is history repeating itself. The "operation" deported many US citizens, it is a scary thought to fathom that the government can revoke someone's citizenship because of their race or because they fit a description.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jul/15
July 10, 1966: Chicago Freedom Movement
On this day in history, the Chicago Freedom Movement led by a joint effort from activist groups like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and figureheads of the Civil Rights Movement such as Martin Luther King Jr., came to a peak by holding its biggest rally and making known the movement’s demands to Chicago City Hall. The Chicago Freedom Movement aimed to address the economic exploitation of African Americans in the North by using non-violent methods. The African American community in Chicago was exposed to de facto segregation in education, housing, and employment. Fair housing practices became the primary focus, forming some of the demands made by the movement: a creation of a tenants’ union and a nondiscriminatory mortgage policy. However, the mass, non-violent protests were met with violence; race riots erupted in West Chicago and a prominent march led by King through an all white neighborhood, was met with racially fueled hostility, with the likes of bottles and bricks thrown at the demonstrators. Nevertheless, the movement made some progress in Chicago, the city making promises to build public housing in predominantly white areas and to make mortgages available, regardless of race or neighborhood. The effect of the Chicago Freedom Movement is undeniable in the passing of the Fair Housing Act in 1968.
Addressing the systematic racial inequalities of Chicago, the Chicago Freedom Movement set forth progress in a lasting manner, still seen today and emphasizing the ever present need for further change.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.gnofairhousing.org/2019/02/27/remembering-the-chicago-freedom-movement/
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/chicago-campaign
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/chicago-freedom-movement-1965-1967/
July 9, 1955: First African American Appointed as a White House Executive
On this day in 1955, Everett Frederic Morrow became the first African American to hold an executive position in the White House. He was the Administrative Officer for Special Projects as well as a speech writer in the Eisenhower Administration from 1955 to 1961. Born on April 9, 1909 in New Jersey, Morrow was the son of John Eugene Morrow, a Methodist minister, and Mary Ann Hayes, a farm worker and maid. He attended Bowdoin College and excelled in academics but had to leave college in his senior year to help his family. After college, he worked as a Wall Street bank messenger, a business manager of Opportunity Magazine, and a field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He joined the United States Army in 1942, where he served for four years before attending Rutgers Law School. He graduated law school in 1948 and completed a clerkship in New Jersey before briefly returning to the army to fight in the Korean War. He then became a public-affairs writer in the Columbia Broadcasting Company (CBS) in 1950. In 1952, Dwight Eisenhower’s presidential campaign hired Morrow as a personal adviser and administrative assistant. After the election, he was appointed as an advisor of Business Affairs in the Department of Commerce, a position he held until he became the Administrative Officer for Special Projects on July 9, 1955.
In the White House, he faced racial tensions and felt frustrated that so many African Americans were excluded from government positions. At the time, the Supreme Court had just made its landmark decision in favor of racial integration in Brown v. Board of Education, and the Montgomery Bus Boycotts had just begun. Throughout his time in the White House, Morrow strongly urged his colleagues and the Republican Party to advance racial integration and equal rights. He wrote an account of his experiences in the White House in his book “Black Man in the White House” which was published in 1963. After leaving the White House, Morrow became the Vice President of the African-American Institute in New York, a privately funded educational-cultural agency. He later worked with the Bank of America, where he was the first African American to be promoted to Vice President of its New York international subsidiary in 1964. He retired from the position in 1975 and worked as an executive in the Education Testing Service in Princeton, New Jersey. He died on July 20, 1994 in New York at the age of 88 and is survived by his wife, Catherine Gordon Morrow, sister, Nellie Parker, and brother, Dr. John Morrow.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.whitehousehistory.org/e-frederick-morrow-at-the-white-house
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/morrow-e-frederic-1909-1994/
https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/21/obituaries/e-frederic-morrow-88-aide-in-eisenhower-administration.html
July 8th 2011: The Death of the American Activist, Betty Ford
On this day in history, First Lady, Betty Ford passed away at the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, CA of natural causes. Throughout her life, Betty Ford was an outspoken activist for feminism and equal pay for all. After becoming First Lady, Betty was diagnosed with breast cancer. She became one of the first people in America to openly speak about her diagnoses, giving the illness a platform. Before Betty's openness about breast cancer, the country at large was reluctant to discuss breast cancer at all. Ford's vocalization left an important mark on the public. It demonstrated the power and platform a First Lady has in influencing the American people. Ford lobbied for the Equal Rights Amendment and for the Equal Pay Act. She was known to speak openly about women's reproductive rights and was an important supporter of Roe vs. Wade. Ford also spoke about pre-martial sex and recreational drug use in an effort to remove stigma. Her role awarded her the nickname "no lady" in recognition of her fierce opposition to unjust social norms and practices. In 1975, she was named Time magazine's woman of the year. In 1991, Ford received the President's Medal of Freedom for her efforts to promote public awareness and treatment of alcohol and drug addition. Later in her life, she established the Betty Ford Center for treatment of chemical dependency. She was known for her amazing work not only in the women's rights movement, but also in the struggle to remove the stigma surrounding drug addiction. Ford advocated for safe and accessible treatment facilities and fought against the disapproving, watchful eye of the public in regards to substance abuse. Ford is herald as one of America's greatest women's rights advocates.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.onthisday.com/people/betty-ford
https://www.biography.com/us-first-lady/betty-ford
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Betty-Ford
July 5, 1971: President Nixon Certifies the 26th Amendment
On this day in 1971, President Richard Nixon held a ceremony to officially certify the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which lowered the national voting age from 21 to 18 years old. The amendment had passed the Senate on March 10 in a 94-0 vote, and the House of Representatives in a 401-19 vote on March 23, 1971. State legislators quickly ratified the change, and by July 1, 1971, official ratification took effect after reaching the necessary three-fourths majority of state ratification. This change came as a response to a revived slogan – “old enough to fight, old enough to vote” – which referenced that men ineligible to vote by age were being drafted for the Vietnam War. During the signing ceremony, President Nixon stated his confidence in the youth and recognized the 11 million potential voters now added to the electorate, half of whom would vote in the 1972 presidential election.
For more information, please visit:
https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-26th-Amendment/
https://www.nytimes.com/1971/07/06/archives/front-page-1-no-title-nixon-hails-youth-vote-as-26th-amendment-is.html
https://www.nixonfoundation.org/1971/07/president-nixon-certifies-the-26th-amendment/
https://www.history.com/topics/1970s/voting-age-lowered-video
July 3, 2018: Trump Administration Rescinds College Guidelines on Race
On this day in history, the Trump Administration abandoned Obama Administration guidelines on using race as a factor in college admissions, therefore limiting affirmative action. The previous policies did not have the force of law, but encouraged consideration of race in college admissions, as the Obama Administration stated one of the goals of higher education institutions, is to foster diversity. Currently, the Department of Justice and Education made the changes to restore the rule of law and be more aligned with the ruling of the Supreme Court. The most recent Supreme Court decision on affirmative action, Fisher v. University of Texas, however, ruled that the consideration of race can be permitted in undergraduate admissions, permitted by the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Nevertheless, the federal government has now changed its official viewpoint on affirmative action, giving colleges the grounds to defend themselves from potential lawsuits over their admission policies. Former Attorney General Jeff Sessions has asserted the possible investigations by federal prosecutors that will arise if colleges do not adhere to more race-neutral guidelines.
In a reversal of guidelines, the Trump Administration limited the power of affirmative action and increased the contention surrounding this issue.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/03/us/politics/trump-affirmative-action-race-schools.html
https://www.apnews.com/fb0e61d53b374f98b8a5ae50e3ab5697
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2012/11-345
July 2, 1964: President Johnson signs Civil Rights Act of 1964
On this day in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act into law in a nationally televised White House ceremony. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended racial segregation, outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origins, and guaranteed equal voting rights. It also assured nondiscrimination in the distribution of funds under federally assisted programs. This event was a huge achievement brought about by the African American civil rights movement which had won thousands of supporters through rigorous organized activism. President John F. Kennedy had begun the process for pushing forward a new civil rights bill in the wake of the civil rights movement. As Kennedy’s vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson vowed to continue his work after his assassination in 1963. The bill faced huge opposition from Southern members in Congress who staged a 75-day filibuster in the Senate, one of the longest filibusters in U.S. history. However, both chambers eventually reached the two-thirds votes required to pass the bill. President Johnson signed the bill with at least 75 pens, which he handed out to congressional supporters of the bill and to prominent civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act
https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964
https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/civil-rights-act-1.html
JUNE 2019
June 28th, 1969: Stonewall Riots Begin
On this day in 1969, New York City police raided the Stonewall Inn – a well-known bar for gay and transgender people in Greenwich Village. Police officers arrested employees for selling alcohol without a license and took several patrons into custody for violating a New York law that required individuals to wear at least three articles of gender-appropriate clothing. Hundreds of protesters joined in an uprising that would last for the next five days, protesting perpetual police harassment and social discrimination against sexual minorities. While the Stonewall Riots were not the beginning of the gay rights movement, many historians credit it as a landmark in LGBT political activism; in 2016, President Barack Obama designated the Stonewall Inn, and surrounding areas, as a national monument for its contribution to gay and human rights.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Stonewall-riots
https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/28/us/1969-stonewall-riots-history/index.html
June 27, 2016: Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt
Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt was decided on June 27, 2016 striking down a Texas law that restricted abortion. The Court ruled on a 5-3 vote that Texas cannot place restrictions on the delivery of abortion services that restrict and burden women from receiving an abortion.
In 2013, the Texas Legislature passed House Bill 2 (H.B. 2), which implemented several provisions pertaining to abortions. One such provision required that any physician performing an abortion have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles of where the abortion was performed, and another provision required that all abortion clinics comply with standards for ambulatory surgical centers. A group of abortion providers acted as petitioners and sued the State of Texas, seeking to invalidate the stated provisions in H.B. 2, as they relate to facilities in McAllen and El Paso. The petitioners argued that H.B. 2 denied equal protection, unlawfully delegated lawmaking authority, and constituted arbitrary and unreasonable state action. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit upheld the Texas law, which would have forced more than 75 percent of the state’s abortion clinics to close without any meaningful inquiry into whether the law served any health-related purpose.
In June 2015, by a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court voted to partially stay the Fifth Circuit’s ruling. On September 5, 2015, Whole Woman’s Health appealed to the Supreme Court, filing a petition for a writ of certiorari, which the Court granted on November 13, 2015. On January 4, 2016, Constitutional Accountability Center filed a friend-of-the-court brief in support of Whole Woman’s Health, which argued that the Fifth Circuit’s analysis could not be squared with the text or history of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court heard oral argument on March 2, 2016. Ultimately, the judgment was reversed and remanded, 5-3, in an opinion by Justice Breyer on June 27, 2016. Justice Ginsburg filed a concurring opinion while Justice Thomas filed a dissenting opinion. Justice Alito also filed a dissenting opinion, in which Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Thomas joined.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2015/15-274
https://www.theusconstitution.org/litigation/whole-womans-health-v-hellerstedt-u-s-sup-ct/
https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/whole-womans-health-v-cole/
June 26, 2015: Obergefell v. Hodges
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized the right to marry is guaranteed to same sex-couples by the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The culmination of six lower court cases, where same-sex couples argued to challenge the constitutionality of states’ bans on same sex marriage and their refusal to recognize legal same-sex marriages that occurred in jurisdictions that provided for such marriages, led to these issues being argued in front of the Supreme Court. A 1972 case about the right of same-sex marriage, Baker v. Nelson, was simply dismissed by the Supreme Court for the lack of a “substantial federal question,” essentially ruling that there is no fundamental right to marry for same-sex couples and setting a precedent for future cases concerning this issue. Fast forward to Obergefell v. Hodges, the Court overruled its prior decision in Baker v. Nelson, establishing the fundamental right of marriage for same-sex couples. Justice Kennedy in the majority opinion, recognizes the right to marry under the Due Process Clause, as it is a liberty that is inherent to individual autonomy and that there are no differences when compared to an opposite-sex union. Also the Equal Protection Clause guarantees marriage to same-sex couples, as denial would not warrant equal protection under the law. The dissenting opinion written by Chief Justice Roberts and supported by Justice Thomas and Justice Scalia, emphasized the overreach of the Court into policy making and concluded this issue should be decided by state legislatures, commenting on the limitations of the Constitution on deciding same-sex marriages.
In a 5-4 ruling, the Supreme Court not only redefined the protections of the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause, but expanded the powers of the judiciary.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Obergefell-v-Hodges
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-55
https://www.theusconstitution.org/litigation/obergefell-v-hodges-et-al-u-s-sup-ct/
June 25, 1978: First Use of the Rainbow Pride Flag at a March in San Francisco
On this day in 1978, the first documented use of the rainbow flag, symbolic of gay pride, occurred at the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day parade. The flag was created earlier that year by artist Gilbert Baker when he was urged by Harvey Milk, one of the first openly gay elected officials in the U.S., to create a symbol of pride for the gay community. Baker decided to make a flag because he felt that flags were the most powerful symbol of pride. He naturally envisioned the flag to be the rainbow as it would symbolize inclusivity, solidarity, and positivity. The original flag had eight stripes. It was later altered to become the current six-stripe version as the color hot pink was too expensive to reproduce and turquoise and indigo were combined into royal blue. Each color in the flag has a different meaning: red for life, orange for healing, yellow for sunlight, green for nature, blue for harmony, and purple for spirit. In the original version, pink symbolized sex and turquoise symbolized magic. The flag was also intended to replace the pink triangle—a historically homophobic tool of oppression. Today, the flag can be seen displayed all over the world, remaining a powerful symbol of pride and empowerment for the gay community.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/story/how-did-the-rainbow-flag-become-a-symbol-of-lgbt-pride
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/rainbow-pride-flag-history_n_5b193aafe4b0599bc6e124a0
http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160615-the-history-of-the-rainbow-flag
June 24, 2015: Removing the Confederate Flag causes more Controversy then Relief
One this day in history in 2015, the Alabama’s government officials removed the Confederate flag from the grounds of the state capitol in Montgomery. The removal of the flag came from the tragic and heartless shooting of nine African American individuals at a church in Charleston, South Carolina. White supremacist gunman walked into the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church at 9 pm and opened fire, killing eight on the scene. Two individuals were rushed to the hospital, one tragically died on the way there. Later, Dylann Roof was found guilty of 33 counts of federal hate crimes and faces nine counts of murder and attempted murder of three other individuals in the basement of the church. He has been sentenced to death. In response to the shooting, there were many marches through the streets of Charleston to protect the rights of all and for the removal of the Confederate flag. The Black Lives Matter march created many controversies in the government of Alabama. The government choose to take the flag down, but this caused many in Alabama to counter this action and riot on the grounds of the capital with white supremacist posters and more Confederate Flags. Some of the signs read, “Southern Lives Matter,” which is a horrible notion after the evens of the shooting. This created a fear that the citizens of Alabama were agreeing with Roof’s actions and pushing down the rights of people of color everywhere. Many southerners continue to glorify and promote these symbols of racial inequality and white supremacy. In recent years, many southern states such as Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia have passed “heritage” laws to protect Confederate monuments from being removed even with the public pressure to remove them. Even though this law passed, Alabama still removed the flag in solidarity to the African Americans of the state.
Since 2015, over 110 Confederate Monuments and Symbols have been removed. This has not stopped the growing white supremacist movement and movement to protect the Confederate Flag. As for the Charleston Church shooting, this event has caused many empowering movement for people of color across the country, yet on the other hand it has caused massive fear in people everywhere, if a loving place like a church, which is supposed to be filled with only the good, is not safe then there is no where that anyone can feel protected.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/us/church-attacked-in-charleston-south-carolina.html
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/12/15/505723552/jury-finds-dylann-roof-guilty-in-s-c-church-shooting
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/hundreds-protest-hold-vigil-charleston-shooting
On this day in 1969, New York City police raided the Stonewall Inn – a well-known bar for gay and transgender people in Greenwich Village. Police officers arrested employees for selling alcohol without a license and took several patrons into custody for violating a New York law that required individuals to wear at least three articles of gender-appropriate clothing. Hundreds of protesters joined in an uprising that would last for the next five days, protesting perpetual police harassment and social discrimination against sexual minorities. While the Stonewall Riots were not the beginning of the gay rights movement, many historians credit it as a landmark in LGBT political activism; in 2016, President Barack Obama designated the Stonewall Inn, and surrounding areas, as a national monument for its contribution to gay and human rights.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Stonewall-riots
https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/28/us/1969-stonewall-riots-history/index.html
June 27, 2016: Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt
Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt was decided on June 27, 2016 striking down a Texas law that restricted abortion. The Court ruled on a 5-3 vote that Texas cannot place restrictions on the delivery of abortion services that restrict and burden women from receiving an abortion.
In 2013, the Texas Legislature passed House Bill 2 (H.B. 2), which implemented several provisions pertaining to abortions. One such provision required that any physician performing an abortion have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles of where the abortion was performed, and another provision required that all abortion clinics comply with standards for ambulatory surgical centers. A group of abortion providers acted as petitioners and sued the State of Texas, seeking to invalidate the stated provisions in H.B. 2, as they relate to facilities in McAllen and El Paso. The petitioners argued that H.B. 2 denied equal protection, unlawfully delegated lawmaking authority, and constituted arbitrary and unreasonable state action. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit upheld the Texas law, which would have forced more than 75 percent of the state’s abortion clinics to close without any meaningful inquiry into whether the law served any health-related purpose.
In June 2015, by a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court voted to partially stay the Fifth Circuit’s ruling. On September 5, 2015, Whole Woman’s Health appealed to the Supreme Court, filing a petition for a writ of certiorari, which the Court granted on November 13, 2015. On January 4, 2016, Constitutional Accountability Center filed a friend-of-the-court brief in support of Whole Woman’s Health, which argued that the Fifth Circuit’s analysis could not be squared with the text or history of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court heard oral argument on March 2, 2016. Ultimately, the judgment was reversed and remanded, 5-3, in an opinion by Justice Breyer on June 27, 2016. Justice Ginsburg filed a concurring opinion while Justice Thomas filed a dissenting opinion. Justice Alito also filed a dissenting opinion, in which Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Thomas joined.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2015/15-274
https://www.theusconstitution.org/litigation/whole-womans-health-v-hellerstedt-u-s-sup-ct/
https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/whole-womans-health-v-cole/
June 26, 2015: Obergefell v. Hodges
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized the right to marry is guaranteed to same sex-couples by the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The culmination of six lower court cases, where same-sex couples argued to challenge the constitutionality of states’ bans on same sex marriage and their refusal to recognize legal same-sex marriages that occurred in jurisdictions that provided for such marriages, led to these issues being argued in front of the Supreme Court. A 1972 case about the right of same-sex marriage, Baker v. Nelson, was simply dismissed by the Supreme Court for the lack of a “substantial federal question,” essentially ruling that there is no fundamental right to marry for same-sex couples and setting a precedent for future cases concerning this issue. Fast forward to Obergefell v. Hodges, the Court overruled its prior decision in Baker v. Nelson, establishing the fundamental right of marriage for same-sex couples. Justice Kennedy in the majority opinion, recognizes the right to marry under the Due Process Clause, as it is a liberty that is inherent to individual autonomy and that there are no differences when compared to an opposite-sex union. Also the Equal Protection Clause guarantees marriage to same-sex couples, as denial would not warrant equal protection under the law. The dissenting opinion written by Chief Justice Roberts and supported by Justice Thomas and Justice Scalia, emphasized the overreach of the Court into policy making and concluded this issue should be decided by state legislatures, commenting on the limitations of the Constitution on deciding same-sex marriages.
In a 5-4 ruling, the Supreme Court not only redefined the protections of the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause, but expanded the powers of the judiciary.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Obergefell-v-Hodges
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/14-55
https://www.theusconstitution.org/litigation/obergefell-v-hodges-et-al-u-s-sup-ct/
June 25, 1978: First Use of the Rainbow Pride Flag at a March in San Francisco
On this day in 1978, the first documented use of the rainbow flag, symbolic of gay pride, occurred at the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day parade. The flag was created earlier that year by artist Gilbert Baker when he was urged by Harvey Milk, one of the first openly gay elected officials in the U.S., to create a symbol of pride for the gay community. Baker decided to make a flag because he felt that flags were the most powerful symbol of pride. He naturally envisioned the flag to be the rainbow as it would symbolize inclusivity, solidarity, and positivity. The original flag had eight stripes. It was later altered to become the current six-stripe version as the color hot pink was too expensive to reproduce and turquoise and indigo were combined into royal blue. Each color in the flag has a different meaning: red for life, orange for healing, yellow for sunlight, green for nature, blue for harmony, and purple for spirit. In the original version, pink symbolized sex and turquoise symbolized magic. The flag was also intended to replace the pink triangle—a historically homophobic tool of oppression. Today, the flag can be seen displayed all over the world, remaining a powerful symbol of pride and empowerment for the gay community.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/story/how-did-the-rainbow-flag-become-a-symbol-of-lgbt-pride
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/rainbow-pride-flag-history_n_5b193aafe4b0599bc6e124a0
http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160615-the-history-of-the-rainbow-flag
June 24, 2015: Removing the Confederate Flag causes more Controversy then Relief
One this day in history in 2015, the Alabama’s government officials removed the Confederate flag from the grounds of the state capitol in Montgomery. The removal of the flag came from the tragic and heartless shooting of nine African American individuals at a church in Charleston, South Carolina. White supremacist gunman walked into the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church at 9 pm and opened fire, killing eight on the scene. Two individuals were rushed to the hospital, one tragically died on the way there. Later, Dylann Roof was found guilty of 33 counts of federal hate crimes and faces nine counts of murder and attempted murder of three other individuals in the basement of the church. He has been sentenced to death. In response to the shooting, there were many marches through the streets of Charleston to protect the rights of all and for the removal of the Confederate flag. The Black Lives Matter march created many controversies in the government of Alabama. The government choose to take the flag down, but this caused many in Alabama to counter this action and riot on the grounds of the capital with white supremacist posters and more Confederate Flags. Some of the signs read, “Southern Lives Matter,” which is a horrible notion after the evens of the shooting. This created a fear that the citizens of Alabama were agreeing with Roof’s actions and pushing down the rights of people of color everywhere. Many southerners continue to glorify and promote these symbols of racial inequality and white supremacy. In recent years, many southern states such as Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia have passed “heritage” laws to protect Confederate monuments from being removed even with the public pressure to remove them. Even though this law passed, Alabama still removed the flag in solidarity to the African Americans of the state.
Since 2015, over 110 Confederate Monuments and Symbols have been removed. This has not stopped the growing white supremacist movement and movement to protect the Confederate Flag. As for the Charleston Church shooting, this event has caused many empowering movement for people of color across the country, yet on the other hand it has caused massive fear in people everywhere, if a loving place like a church, which is supposed to be filled with only the good, is not safe then there is no where that anyone can feel protected.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/us/church-attacked-in-charleston-south-carolina.html
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/12/15/505723552/jury-finds-dylann-roof-guilty-in-s-c-church-shooting
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/hundreds-protest-hold-vigil-charleston-shooting
June 21st, 1989: Texas v. Johnson
On this day in 1989, the United States Supreme Court decided Texas v. Johnson, ruling that flag burning is a form of “symbolic speech” that is protected by the First Amendment. Gregory Lee Johnson, a participant in a political demonstration in Dallas, Texas, doused an American flag in kerosene and set it on fire in front of the Dallas City Hall. Johnson was arrested, sentenced to one year in prison, and fined $2,000 for violating the state law that prohibited the “desecration of a venerated object.” Although he lost his appeal to the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas, the state’s highest appeals court for criminal cases – the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals – overturned his conviction, arguing that symbolic speech was protected. The case was reviewed by the US Supreme Court, which upheld the appeals court decision in a 5-4 ruling, stating that prohibiting the “expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable” is unconstitutional. In striking down the “venerable object” statute, the Supreme Court recognized that the protections of the First Amendment encompassed a broader definition of “expressive conduct” that did not end at the spoken or written word.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1988/88-155
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/educate/educator-resources/lessons-plans/landmark-supreme-court-cases-elessons/texas-v-johnson-1989
https://www.britannica.com/event/Texas-v-Johnson
June 19, 1987: Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson, ruling sexual harassment as discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Mechelle Vinson, a former employee of Meritor Savings Bank, claimed that she experienced sexual harassment at the hands of her supervisor, Sidney Taylor, thus creating a “hostile working environment.” The federal district court ruled in favor of Taylor, on the grounds of a voluntary sexual relationship and found that the bank is not liable for the misconduct, since Vinson had not reported to bank officials. However, the Court of Appeals reversed the decision and defined two types of sexual harassment: harassment that condition economic benefits and harassment that creates a hostile or offensive working environment. With the case argued before the Supreme Court, the majority opinion emphasized that Title VII is not limited to economic discrimination and sexual discrimination that leads to an abusive work environment, merits violation of the Civil Rights Act. The court found the district court’s reasoning as insufficient to deny Vinson’s claim as the voluntary nature of the relationship is irrelevant; the issue lies in if the respondent welcomed these advances. However, the court also rejected the appellate panel’s decision concerning the automatic liability of employers for their supervisors.
In a unanimous ruling, the Supreme Court expanded the protections of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, while leaving the extent of liability for businesses concerning their employees, ambiguous at best.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meritor-Savings-Bank-v-Vinson
https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/477/57.html
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1985/84-1979
June 18, 2019: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Final Draft Completed
On this day in 1948, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights completed the final draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Commission was established in 1946 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council to respond to human rights violations, set international standards to govern different States, and act as a forum for countries around the world to voice their opinions and concerns. The Commission convened for three sessions, with the first beginning in January 1947 where Eleanor Roosevelt was unanimously elected Chairman and the Chinese diplomat Peng Chung Chang was elected Vice-Chairman. At these sessions, it was decided that the Commission would draft an international bill of rights containing three parts: a declaration, a convention, and measures for implementation. By the time the third session had ended on June 18, 1948, the final draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was completed. The Commission adopted the Declaration with 12 votes in favor and 4 in abstention. The Declaration was then submitted to the Economic and Social Council where it was discussed further before being put to vote in December 1948. It was officially adopted on December 10, 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly where 48 countries voted in favor, 8 countries abstained, and none voted against. Translated into over 500 languages, this document was fundamental in the advancement of human rights all over the world.
For more information, please visit:
http://research.un.org/en/undhr/introduction
https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/
June 17, 196: Supreme Court Bans Religious Expression in Public Schools
On this day in history, the United States Supreme Court ruled that reading or praying from the Bible at a public school is unconstitutional. The Court's decision, in School District of Abington Township v. Schempp, prohibited the uses of and references to religion in public institutions. This case was introduced in 1958, when Edward Schempp’s children were attending a public school in Pennsylvania. The school required students to recite the Lord’s Prayer and additionally, to start every morning with reading at least 10 passages from the Bible. Schempp, who was Unitarian, claimed this violated his First Amendment right, specifically, the portion stating “Congress shall make no law prohibiting the free exercise of religion.” His case was brought to the U.S. district court, and Schempp prevailed on his claim. Following this, the school district appealed the decision. However, before the case made it to the U.S. Supreme Court, the Pennsylvania General Assembly amended their law to state that students could be excused from the Bible readings if they had their parents’ written approval.The Supreme Court remanded the case back to the district court to take this new rule into consideration.
The district court heard the case again and held that using the Bible in the school, even if a child could be excused, was still in violation of the constitution. After this decision, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the school district's appeal. The Court ruled in favor of the district court, thus, siding with Schempp. In a majority opinion written by Justice C. Clark, the Court ruled 8-1. This case, along with other cases around the United States, affirmed that there needed to be a larger separation of church and state.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/School-District-of-Abington-Township-v-Schempp
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1962/142
https://www.onthisday.com/history/events/date/1963
June 11, 1967: Police Shooting of Unarmed Teen with Hands Up Leads to Tampa Riots
On this day in history in 1967, an unarmed African-American teenager was shot and killed by a police officer which caused unrest in the civil rights community. In Tampa, Florida on June 11, Officer James Calvert, a white police officer, shot Martin Chambers in the back. Officers claimed that they where pursuing Chambers and two other young men in connection with a robbery at a photo supply store. Articles at the time stated that Chambers, nineteen at the time, did not stop running after police asked him. Calvert later claimed that he was aiming at this shoulder and missed, killing Chambers. This news was not taken well in the African-American community in Tampa. The community held public protests that night and for the next three nights in the Central Avenue area. During the investigation, three young African-American male witnesses stated that the officer shot Chambers in the back after he had stopped running and had put his hands in the air. After the investigation closed, officers’ decided Calvert’s actions were necessary. The state's attorney general, Paul Antinori, stated that people who break the law accept risks that law enforcement might have to use, but Chambers was not convicted of any crime and was completely unarmed. News of this ruling created fear within the African-American community because it confirmed there would be no end to the power of the officers in the city.
This event was not the first or the last time that an unarmed African-American man has had brutal force used against them by police officers, some of the biggest cases came after this event. Cases of Rodney King, Michael Brown, and Trayvon Martin are just three examples of brutally against African-American males in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jun/11
https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/filmmaker-marks-50th-anniversary-of-tampa-race-riots-with-new-documentary/67-446480689
https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/05/us/controversial-police-encounters-fast-facts/index.html
June 10, 1963: US Equal Pay Act Signed into Law:
On this day in 1963, President John F. Kennedy signed into law the US Equal Pay Act. The Equal Pay Act prohibited gender-based wage discrimination. This act was an amendment to the Fair Labor Standard Act, which established a minimum wage, overtime pay, record keeping, and child labor standard for employees in full-time and part-time employment in the public and private sectors. At this time, women made up a quarter of the workforce but got paid less than men and in some states, female workers were limited in their work hours, including prohibitions on working night shifts. World War II dramatically shifted the perspective of women in the workforce, women were taking more jobs in the factory industry while men enlisted in the military. During this time, the National War Labor Board endorsed equal pay for women, directly replacing male dominated jobs. Congress then introduced the equal pay act in 1945, which failed in traction in the 1950s. The following decade, women were still earning less than two-thirds of what men made. In 1963, this act was finally signed by the President, with the endorsement of former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and Esther Peterson, head of the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor.
Ultimately and even though this act did not give men and women equal pay in the United States, it did start the conversation about equality in the workforce and gender-based wages.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/equal-pay-act
https://www.onthisday.com/events/date/1963?p=2
https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/epa.cfm
https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/hrg.htm
June 7th, 1965: Griswold v. Connecticut
On this day in 1965, the US Supreme court ruled that Connecticut’s law criminalized the encouragement or use of birth control. Estelle Griswold, the executive director of Planned Parenthood, and Dr. Lee Buxton, the medical executive for Planned Parenthood, were convicted for violating this state law. They provided married couples information about contraception as well as writing prescriptions for contraceptive devices. In a 7-2 decision, the Supreme Court stated that Connecticut’s birth control law is unconstitutional on the basis of 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 9th amendments. SCOTUS also ruled that the state law violated “right to marital privacy” and could not be enforced against married people. This further guaranteed that married couples make their own decisions about contraception and ensuring a right to privacy regarding reproductive decisions.
This landmark case helped pave the way for reproductive privacy and freedoms that are in place today. Taking the first step towards birth control legalization led to other important cases such as Roe v. Wade. This case is significant because it allowed organizations like Planned Parenthood to provide reproductive health services.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Griswold-v-State-of-Connecticut
https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_griswold.html
June 6, 1966: Activist James Meredith Shot by White Man During 'March Against Fear' in Mississippi
Civil rights activist James Meredith began a 220-mile march from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi to encourage African Americans to register to vote and challenge the white supremacist-led fear mongering that was taking place within the state. State police and FBI agents monitored the march while reporters and photographers trailed behind. On his journey, a white salesman found Meredith in the woods and shot him in the neck - despite the fact that the shooter announced his plan just before carrying out the attack, law enforcement did nothing to protect James Meredith. He ultimately sustained his injuries but was not able to continue on his march; on June 26th, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stokely Carmichael, and Floyd McKissick were among the thousands of marchers who completed the trip even after facing harassment and physical abuse from angry mobs and law enforcement. Mr. Meredith rejoined the march shortly before it reached Jackson and led a rally at the state capitol.
For more information, please visit:
https://exhibits.stanford.edu/fitch/browse/meredith-march-against-fear-june-1966
https://snccdigital.org/events/meredith-march/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jun/06
June 5th, 1950: Sweatt v. Painter
On this day in 1950, Sweatt v. Painter was decided by the US Supreme Court. Herman Sweatt was a black student who had applied in 1946 to the all-white University of Texas law school and was denied admission. He sued in state court and the court stayed the case to give the university a chance to provide a separate facility for Black students. In 1947 a temporary law school for Negroes was opened giving black students access to some of the faculty and to the Texas Supreme Court library. This parallel all-black law school, however, lacked the faculty, course variety, library facilities, legal writing opportunities, and overall prestige that the all-white law school provided. Sweatt wanted to gain the best education he could, so he challenged that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment allows him to be admitted into the University of Texas Law School. The basis of his argument was that the schools could never be equal unless they had the same faculty, the same students, the same class discussions and the same books. Since this hastily constructed law school could never do that, Sweatt argued that since he was not provided the same opportunity or education that he could receive at the University of Texas Law School, he had to be admitted under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.
The US Supreme Court ruled in favor of Sweatt. The Court agreed that the schools are unequal and therefore Sweatt should be allowed to be admitted into the University of Texas law school. Unfortunately, the long proceeding of this case deteriorated Sweatt’s health and marriage, and he was unable to complete his law degree. He later received a social work degree.
The rationale used in Sweatt was instrumental in the 1954 landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education that struck down the "separate, but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson and desegregated public schools. This case influenced many of the arguments used in Brown.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.bet.com/news/national/2012/06/05/this-day-in-black-history-june-5-1950.html
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2012/10/10/162650487/sweatt-vs-texas-nearly-forgotten-but-landmark-integration-case
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/339us629
June 4, 1989: Chinese Troops Storm Tiananmen Square killing Thousands of protesters.
On this day in history, one of the most well known and shocking violations of human rights occurred. Nearly a million Chinese students crowded the central Beijing plaza known as Tiananmen Square to protest for greater democracy and civil rights. For nearly three weeks, the protesters marched and voiced their opinion about the repressive government and civil rights. They gained world attention, with western reporters and newspapers covering their protests. However on June 4, Chinese troops and police stormed through Tiananmen Square, shooting into the crowd of protesters. Chaos broke out as tens of thousands of students tried to run from the gunfire, while some students fought back. China reports that 300 were killed, although many reports estimate that the actual number is in the thousands. We may never know the true number. 10,000 were arrested and received prison time or were eventually executed.
The savagery shown by the Chinese government shocked the world and even the Soviet Union, their Cold War Allies. In response to this brutal violation of human rights the United States imposed heavy sanctions on China shortly after. 30 years later, this incident is still a point of hostility between China and the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.britannica.com/event/Tiananmen-Square-incident
https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB16/
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2019/06/04/tiananmen-square-30-years-later-u-s-and-china-clash-over-protest/1337164001/
June 3, 1861: Union Army Defeats Confederacy in Battle of Philippi, West Virginia
On June 3, 1861, the Union Army of the northern states defeated the Confederate Army of the southern states in the first land or inland battle of the American Civil War. The Union Army heavily outnumbered the Confederate Army by 3,000 to 800 respectively, lasting less than 20 with no fatalities on either side, it marked the beginning of the inland fighting in Civil War.
The Civil War determined the kind of nation the United States of America would be, one with or without slavery. The North won the war, preserving the United States of America as one nation and ending the institution of slavery. All African American slaves were freed opening many doors previously unavailable to slaves. Discrimination of black people still very much exists but freedom from the bonds of slavery was a crucial step towards equality.
For more information, please see:
https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-philippi
https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/brief-overview-american-civil-war
https://www.historynet.com/the-first-battle-of-the-civil-war.htm
On this day in 1989, the United States Supreme Court decided Texas v. Johnson, ruling that flag burning is a form of “symbolic speech” that is protected by the First Amendment. Gregory Lee Johnson, a participant in a political demonstration in Dallas, Texas, doused an American flag in kerosene and set it on fire in front of the Dallas City Hall. Johnson was arrested, sentenced to one year in prison, and fined $2,000 for violating the state law that prohibited the “desecration of a venerated object.” Although he lost his appeal to the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas, the state’s highest appeals court for criminal cases – the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals – overturned his conviction, arguing that symbolic speech was protected. The case was reviewed by the US Supreme Court, which upheld the appeals court decision in a 5-4 ruling, stating that prohibiting the “expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable” is unconstitutional. In striking down the “venerable object” statute, the Supreme Court recognized that the protections of the First Amendment encompassed a broader definition of “expressive conduct” that did not end at the spoken or written word.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1988/88-155
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/educate/educator-resources/lessons-plans/landmark-supreme-court-cases-elessons/texas-v-johnson-1989
https://www.britannica.com/event/Texas-v-Johnson
June 19, 1987: Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson
On this day in history, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson, ruling sexual harassment as discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Mechelle Vinson, a former employee of Meritor Savings Bank, claimed that she experienced sexual harassment at the hands of her supervisor, Sidney Taylor, thus creating a “hostile working environment.” The federal district court ruled in favor of Taylor, on the grounds of a voluntary sexual relationship and found that the bank is not liable for the misconduct, since Vinson had not reported to bank officials. However, the Court of Appeals reversed the decision and defined two types of sexual harassment: harassment that condition economic benefits and harassment that creates a hostile or offensive working environment. With the case argued before the Supreme Court, the majority opinion emphasized that Title VII is not limited to economic discrimination and sexual discrimination that leads to an abusive work environment, merits violation of the Civil Rights Act. The court found the district court’s reasoning as insufficient to deny Vinson’s claim as the voluntary nature of the relationship is irrelevant; the issue lies in if the respondent welcomed these advances. However, the court also rejected the appellate panel’s decision concerning the automatic liability of employers for their supervisors.
In a unanimous ruling, the Supreme Court expanded the protections of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, while leaving the extent of liability for businesses concerning their employees, ambiguous at best.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meritor-Savings-Bank-v-Vinson
https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/477/57.html
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1985/84-1979
June 18, 2019: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Final Draft Completed
On this day in 1948, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights completed the final draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Commission was established in 1946 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council to respond to human rights violations, set international standards to govern different States, and act as a forum for countries around the world to voice their opinions and concerns. The Commission convened for three sessions, with the first beginning in January 1947 where Eleanor Roosevelt was unanimously elected Chairman and the Chinese diplomat Peng Chung Chang was elected Vice-Chairman. At these sessions, it was decided that the Commission would draft an international bill of rights containing three parts: a declaration, a convention, and measures for implementation. By the time the third session had ended on June 18, 1948, the final draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was completed. The Commission adopted the Declaration with 12 votes in favor and 4 in abstention. The Declaration was then submitted to the Economic and Social Council where it was discussed further before being put to vote in December 1948. It was officially adopted on December 10, 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly where 48 countries voted in favor, 8 countries abstained, and none voted against. Translated into over 500 languages, this document was fundamental in the advancement of human rights all over the world.
For more information, please visit:
http://research.un.org/en/undhr/introduction
https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/
June 17, 196: Supreme Court Bans Religious Expression in Public Schools
On this day in history, the United States Supreme Court ruled that reading or praying from the Bible at a public school is unconstitutional. The Court's decision, in School District of Abington Township v. Schempp, prohibited the uses of and references to religion in public institutions. This case was introduced in 1958, when Edward Schempp’s children were attending a public school in Pennsylvania. The school required students to recite the Lord’s Prayer and additionally, to start every morning with reading at least 10 passages from the Bible. Schempp, who was Unitarian, claimed this violated his First Amendment right, specifically, the portion stating “Congress shall make no law prohibiting the free exercise of religion.” His case was brought to the U.S. district court, and Schempp prevailed on his claim. Following this, the school district appealed the decision. However, before the case made it to the U.S. Supreme Court, the Pennsylvania General Assembly amended their law to state that students could be excused from the Bible readings if they had their parents’ written approval.The Supreme Court remanded the case back to the district court to take this new rule into consideration.
The district court heard the case again and held that using the Bible in the school, even if a child could be excused, was still in violation of the constitution. After this decision, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the school district's appeal. The Court ruled in favor of the district court, thus, siding with Schempp. In a majority opinion written by Justice C. Clark, the Court ruled 8-1. This case, along with other cases around the United States, affirmed that there needed to be a larger separation of church and state.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/School-District-of-Abington-Township-v-Schempp
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1962/142
https://www.onthisday.com/history/events/date/1963
June 11, 1967: Police Shooting of Unarmed Teen with Hands Up Leads to Tampa Riots
On this day in history in 1967, an unarmed African-American teenager was shot and killed by a police officer which caused unrest in the civil rights community. In Tampa, Florida on June 11, Officer James Calvert, a white police officer, shot Martin Chambers in the back. Officers claimed that they where pursuing Chambers and two other young men in connection with a robbery at a photo supply store. Articles at the time stated that Chambers, nineteen at the time, did not stop running after police asked him. Calvert later claimed that he was aiming at this shoulder and missed, killing Chambers. This news was not taken well in the African-American community in Tampa. The community held public protests that night and for the next three nights in the Central Avenue area. During the investigation, three young African-American male witnesses stated that the officer shot Chambers in the back after he had stopped running and had put his hands in the air. After the investigation closed, officers’ decided Calvert’s actions were necessary. The state's attorney general, Paul Antinori, stated that people who break the law accept risks that law enforcement might have to use, but Chambers was not convicted of any crime and was completely unarmed. News of this ruling created fear within the African-American community because it confirmed there would be no end to the power of the officers in the city.
This event was not the first or the last time that an unarmed African-American man has had brutal force used against them by police officers, some of the biggest cases came after this event. Cases of Rodney King, Michael Brown, and Trayvon Martin are just three examples of brutally against African-American males in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jun/11
https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/filmmaker-marks-50th-anniversary-of-tampa-race-riots-with-new-documentary/67-446480689
https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/05/us/controversial-police-encounters-fast-facts/index.html
June 10, 1963: US Equal Pay Act Signed into Law:
On this day in 1963, President John F. Kennedy signed into law the US Equal Pay Act. The Equal Pay Act prohibited gender-based wage discrimination. This act was an amendment to the Fair Labor Standard Act, which established a minimum wage, overtime pay, record keeping, and child labor standard for employees in full-time and part-time employment in the public and private sectors. At this time, women made up a quarter of the workforce but got paid less than men and in some states, female workers were limited in their work hours, including prohibitions on working night shifts. World War II dramatically shifted the perspective of women in the workforce, women were taking more jobs in the factory industry while men enlisted in the military. During this time, the National War Labor Board endorsed equal pay for women, directly replacing male dominated jobs. Congress then introduced the equal pay act in 1945, which failed in traction in the 1950s. The following decade, women were still earning less than two-thirds of what men made. In 1963, this act was finally signed by the President, with the endorsement of former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and Esther Peterson, head of the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor.
Ultimately and even though this act did not give men and women equal pay in the United States, it did start the conversation about equality in the workforce and gender-based wages.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/womens-rights/equal-pay-act
https://www.onthisday.com/events/date/1963?p=2
https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/epa.cfm
https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/hrg.htm
June 7th, 1965: Griswold v. Connecticut
On this day in 1965, the US Supreme court ruled that Connecticut’s law criminalized the encouragement or use of birth control. Estelle Griswold, the executive director of Planned Parenthood, and Dr. Lee Buxton, the medical executive for Planned Parenthood, were convicted for violating this state law. They provided married couples information about contraception as well as writing prescriptions for contraceptive devices. In a 7-2 decision, the Supreme Court stated that Connecticut’s birth control law is unconstitutional on the basis of 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 9th amendments. SCOTUS also ruled that the state law violated “right to marital privacy” and could not be enforced against married people. This further guaranteed that married couples make their own decisions about contraception and ensuring a right to privacy regarding reproductive decisions.
This landmark case helped pave the way for reproductive privacy and freedoms that are in place today. Taking the first step towards birth control legalization led to other important cases such as Roe v. Wade. This case is significant because it allowed organizations like Planned Parenthood to provide reproductive health services.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Griswold-v-State-of-Connecticut
https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_griswold.html
June 6, 1966: Activist James Meredith Shot by White Man During 'March Against Fear' in Mississippi
Civil rights activist James Meredith began a 220-mile march from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi to encourage African Americans to register to vote and challenge the white supremacist-led fear mongering that was taking place within the state. State police and FBI agents monitored the march while reporters and photographers trailed behind. On his journey, a white salesman found Meredith in the woods and shot him in the neck - despite the fact that the shooter announced his plan just before carrying out the attack, law enforcement did nothing to protect James Meredith. He ultimately sustained his injuries but was not able to continue on his march; on June 26th, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stokely Carmichael, and Floyd McKissick were among the thousands of marchers who completed the trip even after facing harassment and physical abuse from angry mobs and law enforcement. Mr. Meredith rejoined the march shortly before it reached Jackson and led a rally at the state capitol.
For more information, please visit:
https://exhibits.stanford.edu/fitch/browse/meredith-march-against-fear-june-1966
https://snccdigital.org/events/meredith-march/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jun/06
June 5th, 1950: Sweatt v. Painter
On this day in 1950, Sweatt v. Painter was decided by the US Supreme Court. Herman Sweatt was a black student who had applied in 1946 to the all-white University of Texas law school and was denied admission. He sued in state court and the court stayed the case to give the university a chance to provide a separate facility for Black students. In 1947 a temporary law school for Negroes was opened giving black students access to some of the faculty and to the Texas Supreme Court library. This parallel all-black law school, however, lacked the faculty, course variety, library facilities, legal writing opportunities, and overall prestige that the all-white law school provided. Sweatt wanted to gain the best education he could, so he challenged that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment allows him to be admitted into the University of Texas Law School. The basis of his argument was that the schools could never be equal unless they had the same faculty, the same students, the same class discussions and the same books. Since this hastily constructed law school could never do that, Sweatt argued that since he was not provided the same opportunity or education that he could receive at the University of Texas Law School, he had to be admitted under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.
The US Supreme Court ruled in favor of Sweatt. The Court agreed that the schools are unequal and therefore Sweatt should be allowed to be admitted into the University of Texas law school. Unfortunately, the long proceeding of this case deteriorated Sweatt’s health and marriage, and he was unable to complete his law degree. He later received a social work degree.
The rationale used in Sweatt was instrumental in the 1954 landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education that struck down the "separate, but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson and desegregated public schools. This case influenced many of the arguments used in Brown.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.bet.com/news/national/2012/06/05/this-day-in-black-history-june-5-1950.html
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2012/10/10/162650487/sweatt-vs-texas-nearly-forgotten-but-landmark-integration-case
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/339us629
June 4, 1989: Chinese Troops Storm Tiananmen Square killing Thousands of protesters.
On this day in history, one of the most well known and shocking violations of human rights occurred. Nearly a million Chinese students crowded the central Beijing plaza known as Tiananmen Square to protest for greater democracy and civil rights. For nearly three weeks, the protesters marched and voiced their opinion about the repressive government and civil rights. They gained world attention, with western reporters and newspapers covering their protests. However on June 4, Chinese troops and police stormed through Tiananmen Square, shooting into the crowd of protesters. Chaos broke out as tens of thousands of students tried to run from the gunfire, while some students fought back. China reports that 300 were killed, although many reports estimate that the actual number is in the thousands. We may never know the true number. 10,000 were arrested and received prison time or were eventually executed.
The savagery shown by the Chinese government shocked the world and even the Soviet Union, their Cold War Allies. In response to this brutal violation of human rights the United States imposed heavy sanctions on China shortly after. 30 years later, this incident is still a point of hostility between China and the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.britannica.com/event/Tiananmen-Square-incident
https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB16/
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2019/06/04/tiananmen-square-30-years-later-u-s-and-china-clash-over-protest/1337164001/
June 3, 1861: Union Army Defeats Confederacy in Battle of Philippi, West Virginia
On June 3, 1861, the Union Army of the northern states defeated the Confederate Army of the southern states in the first land or inland battle of the American Civil War. The Union Army heavily outnumbered the Confederate Army by 3,000 to 800 respectively, lasting less than 20 with no fatalities on either side, it marked the beginning of the inland fighting in Civil War.
The Civil War determined the kind of nation the United States of America would be, one with or without slavery. The North won the war, preserving the United States of America as one nation and ending the institution of slavery. All African American slaves were freed opening many doors previously unavailable to slaves. Discrimination of black people still very much exists but freedom from the bonds of slavery was a crucial step towards equality.
For more information, please see:
https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-philippi
https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/brief-overview-american-civil-war
https://www.historynet.com/the-first-battle-of-the-civil-war.htm
may 2019
May 31st, 1921: Tulsa Race Riot
On this day in 1921, in the small highly segregated city of Tulsa, Oklahoma, one of the worst incidents of racial violence in U.S. history occurred. The city had already suffered from the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan as well as many lynchings. Given the area's propensity for racial tension, the day prior to the massacre, a young black teen named Dick Rowland walked into an elevator that had a white elevator operator. Soon after Rowland entered the elevator, a woman screams and he fleas the scene, causing someone to call the police that would eventually arrest him. After he was arrested rumors flared through the city and a newspaper published an article saying that Rowland had sexually assaulted the woman. This prompted the devastating riots. White mobs surrounded the courthouse and when confronted by blacks who had been defending Rowland, an angry assault began. The next day, thousands of whites flooded the black community of Greenwood. They burned down over a thousand homes and killed over a hundred people, leaving many people traumatized by such a devastating event. After 18 grueling hours, the national guard arrived and the violence subsided.
This event is one of the most severe riots in history, but it is often forgotten due to the city's efforts of covering up the event and deleting it from newspaper archives. Since then, however, U.S. Department of Education has worked to implement this event into history classes in Oklahoma.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/tulsa-race-riot
https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/
May 30th, 1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act Passes, Foreshadowing the Civil War
On this day in 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act which essentially allowed people in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders and thereby repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 (prohibited slavery north of latitude 36°30´). Tensions heightened between pro-slavery and anti-slavery activists, since the North had considered the Missouri Compromise a permanent and binding agreement. The anti-slavery settlers held another election, however pro-slavery settlers refused to vote. This resulted in the establishment of two opposing legislatures within the Kansas territory. In support of the pro-slavery settlers, President Franklin Pierce sent in Federal troops to stop the violence and disperse the anti-slavery legislature. Another election was called, and once again pro-slavery supporters were charged with election fraud. This tension came just before the Civil War, which was an attempt to solve disputes between Northern and Southern state regarding slavery. It is important to understand the political events, such as the discourse around this Act, that led up to the Civil War: a fight that has shaped American history.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kansas-Nebraska-Act
http://www.historyplace.com/lincoln/kansas.htm
https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/kansas.html
May 29th, 1851 Sojourner Truth: Ain't I A Woman speech in Akron, Ohio
On this day in history, a black women who was born into slavery in New York, Isabella Baumfree, had a grueling life and had to deal with many inequalities as she was black and a woman. Isabella later changed her name to Sojourner Truth. Sojourner left her slave owner as he broke a promise to let her go after many years. She told people she did not run way, rather she walked off in daylight. Truth was an advocate for rights for blacks and women. Truth later attended a Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. As she was a magnificent speaker, she gave her famous speech known as Ain’t I a Woman. This speech was in support of women and to say that they deserve rights as much as men do.
Here is a famous quote from her famous speech: “That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have plowed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?”
Truth's impact can still be felt today as women are as empowered and equal to men than they have been in the past. Of course there is much more work to be done to ensure women and men are equals, but Truth’s words can help push society in the right direction.
For more information, please visit:
https://sojournertruthmemorial.org/sojourner-truth/her-words/
https://www.nps.gov/articles/sojourner-truth.htm
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/29
May 24th, 1961 Freedom Riders Arrested After Successful Trip to Jacjson, Mississippi
In 1961, amid the civil rights movement, a group of white and black civil rights activists, organized by the Congress of Racial Equality, made it their primary concern to protest the southern states refusing to desegregate bus terminals. They specifically were aiming to test a recent Supreme Court case, Boynton v. Virginia, which ruled that segregation of interstate transportation facilities was unconstitutional. In the first wave of bus rides through Alabama that had started on the May 14th, the riders were viciously attacked by white protesters, and some were jailed. After such devastating results the organizers of the Freedom Ride cancelled the rest of the trips in those regions and flew to New Orleans. However, there were some activists that had wanted to continue along the initial route, wanting to continue from Alabama. Thus, the second round of riders set out on buses on the 24th and departed for Jackson, Mississippi where the riders were greeted by hundreds of supporters. When the riders attempted to use the whites only facilities there they were arrested by the masses. The judge sentenced them to a month and they were assigned to Alabama’s worst prison, at the Parchman facility.
Swiftly, attorneys for the NAACP took actions reversing the court decision. This allowed the continuation of the freedom rides. They went on for a few months putting pressure on the Kennedy administration and urging them to issue regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/freedom-rides
http://todayinclh.com/?event=freedom-riders-arrested-in-jackson-secret-deal-by-ag-robert-kennedy
May 23rd, 1796: President George Washington issues a reward for capturing a black woman fleeing enslavement
On this day in 1796, an advertisement was put out in the newspaper offering a reward for the capture of Ona “Oney” Judge, an enslaved black woman who had “absconded from the household of the President of the United States,” George Washington. Oney was given to Martha Washington (George Washington's wife) by her father and had been held enslaved as part of the Washington estate since she was ten years old. A few days prior, to this ad being put out, Oney had successfully fled to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which had become prominent as a hub of abolitionism. The Washingtons offered a $10 reward for Ms. Judge's return to bondage, but she evaded capture, married, had several children and lived for more than fifty years as a free woman in New Hampshire. She died there, still free, on February 25, 1848. In order for the the painful history of slavery to be understood in a nuanced manner, it must be regarded in context of other popular historical figures and events.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/george-washington-and-the-slave-who-got-away
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/judge-ona-oney-1773-1848/
https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/bj5nj5/oney-judge-escaped-enslavement-by-george-washington
May 22, 1872: The Amnesty Act of 1872 Restores Confederates' Rights
On this day in history, President Ulysses Grant signed the Amnesty Act. This restored many rights to almost everyone who was involved in the Confederate army. There was an exception for about 500 Confederate sympathizers, many of whom were among the highest of rank in the Confederate army. Under this act, voting rights, the right to win property, the right to make laws in the south, and the right to hold office were all included. This act would prove to be very important in the years to come.
Due to this act, oppressive ideologies became prevalent in the south again. Many white segregationists were able to hold office after this act was passed. The white supremacy rhetoric spread quickly becoming the new norm in the south. This helped give rise to groups such as the Klu Klux Klan who would terrorize the black community and suppress them from using the very rights that Confederate supporters retained through this act.
For more information, please visit:
http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-69.htm
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/22
https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/plea-for-amnesty/
May 21, 1919: The House Passes the 19th Amendment.
With World War I looming over the country, the House of Representatives passed a constitutional amendment granting the women the right to vote. The amendment passed with a vote of 274 to 136. However, the Senate failed to pass the amendment. This meant that the measure had to be reintroduced in the House with the 66th Congress (1919-1921). It was again passed on May 21st by a vote of 304 to 90, with the Senate voting to pass the amendment shortly after. The 19th amendment was finally ratified in August 1920.
“How shall we answer their challenge, gentlemen: how shall we explain to them the meaning of democracy if the same Congress that voted for war to make the world a safe for democracy refuses to give this small measure of democracy to the women of out country?” - Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana, who became the first women to serve in Congress, speaks to Congress as she pushes for the passing of the 19th amendment.
For more information, please visit:
https://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35873
https://history.house.gov/Blog/2018/January/1-10-Suffrage-Committee/
https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/lawmakers-celebrate-100th-anniversary-of-women-getting-the-right-to-vote/ar-AABGQs1
May 20, 1961: Freedom Riders attacked in bus depot
On May 20, 1961, a full bus of Freedom Riders was attacked by 300 white separationists in Montgomery, Alabama. The Freedom Riders were a team of freedom fighters made up of black and white civil rights activists. White separationists swarmed a full bus of Freedom Riders at a bus depot. The Freedom Riders were attacked with baseball bats, bicycle chains, iron pipes and after that, the bus was set on fire. The white Freedom Riders were singled out as traitors and received worse beatings. Although the disappearances and lynching of black bodies hardly makes any news, the white bodies that were attacked made international news.
The Freedom Riders were protesting against widespread racial segregation in southern states. These states had refused to acknowledge or enforce the Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that segregated buses were unconstitutional. Fred Gray and Charles D. Langford filed a lawsuit in February 1, 1956 on behalf of four African American women, Aurelia S. Browder, Susie McDonald, Claudette Colvin and Mary Louise Smith, who were arrested after refusing to surrender their seats to white passengers on public buses. The Supreme Court affirmed a ruling by the federal court that found segregated bus laws in Montgomery, Alabama to be unconstitutional because it was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and civil rights statutes for the Reconstruction-era. This, had it been effective, would have enacted the opposite of the “separate but equal” practice decided in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
For more information, please visit:
https://blackthen.com/may-20-1961-freedom-riders-attacked-montgomery-alabama-2/
https://www.wcpo.com/news/our-community/how-a-white-cincinnati-freedom-rider-helped-learned-from-black-civil-rights-activists-in-the-60s
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/342
http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/November/Supreme-Court-Outlaws-Bus-Segregation.html
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/browder-v-gayle-352-us-903
May 16th, 1956: Mississippi State Agency Hires Secret Spies to Fight Integration
On this day in 1956, the Mississippi Sovereignty Commission voted to hire secret agents that would collect information for them on civil rights activity in the area. Years later, the Commission's files were opened and it was revealed that the group had retained private detective agencies, hired private individuals, and did in fact hire several conservative African-Americans who served as spies. The agency was given unusual authority to investigate citizens, even though it was not attached to any law enforcement agency. During its existence from 1956 to 1977, the commission profiled more than 87,000 people associated with/suspected to be associated with the civil rights movement, which it vehemently opposed.
James Coleman, the then governor of Mississippi, was quoted during his swearing in saying, "I have not the slightest fear that four years hence when my successor stands here on this same spot to assume his official oath, the separation of the races in Mississippi will be left intact and will still be in full force and effect in exactly the same manner and form as we know it today". Eventually, funding ended and the Commission officially closed, but its attack on civil rights, including its involvement in the murdering of activists, tainted the lives of many.
For more information, please visit:
http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/243/mississippi-sovereignty-commission-an-agency-history
https://timeline.com/mississippi-state-sovereignty-commission-4450b7f056a3
http://www.upress.state.ms.us/books/496
May 15, 1970: Police Open Fire on a Group of College Students Protesting at Jackson State College
On this day, Mississippi police opened fire on a group of student who were protesting at Jackson State College. The police claimed that they saw a sniper on a girls dormitory top floor. This claim was never proven true; the FBI never found evidence of a sniper. There were 12 people injured and two young black men lost their lives. The protest was in response to the Vietnam war, and more specifically, in response to the US invading Cambodia.
The protesters began by setting fires and eventually lit a dump truck on fire. At this point, the police intervened and took control of the situation. The police response, however, was lethal. Their response came days after a similar situation that took place at Kent State University in Ohio. The National Guard had killed four people they. Both of these events made national news and brought to light the resistance college students faced as they protested.
No arrests were made at the scene in Mississippi and no one was held responsible for the death of the two young men. It is said that this incident can still be felt on the campus of Jackson State College. There is now a plaque commemorating the men who lost their lives. The bullet holes in the woman’s dormitory remain there to this day.
For more information, please see:
https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/today-in-history-the-1970-killings-at-jackson-state-college/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/15
May 14, 2018: McCoy vs Louisiana
On this day in history, the Supreme Court ruled that a criminal defendant, under the Sixth Amendment, has a right to ultimately decide his innocence or guilt, not the lawyers.
Robert McCoy was on trial for first degree murder of his son, mother, and step-father of his wife. He was assigned a public defender and repeatedly stated that he was innocent and he desired to plead not guilty. However, in December 2009, McCoy moved to have his attorney removed because he felt that his counsel was not following his wishes to plead innocent or assisting him in proving his innocence. He then received new counsel and they recommended that he take a plea, however McCoy maintained his innocence. Despite his desire to plead innocent, his new counsel told him he would concede guilt anyway. McCoy was denied his request to discharge his attorney and the trial continued. His counsel continued to concede McCoy’s guilt and pushed for second-degree murder. The jury found McCoy guilty of first-degree murder and recommended the death penalty.
McCoy appealed to the Supreme Court, stating that it was his counsel's duty to defend him in his decision to plead innocent. The Supreme Court agreed. Inherent in the Sixth Amendment’s right of assistance is the autonomy of a criminal defendant to choose the objective of his defense even if the counsel feels otherwise. In this decision, they distinguished decisions that can be made by the counsel and those are are reserved for the client. The court ruled that counsel’s may make decision in relation to “trial management” such as which witnesses to call to testify or raising certain objections. However, all decisions relating towards the right to waive a jury trial, to testify on one’s behalf, whether to plead guilty, or forgo an appeal are all exclusively for the client to decide. The Supreme Court ruled 6-3 in favor of McCoy and granted him a new trial.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/16-8255
https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/17pdf/16-8255_i4ek.pdf
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/05/should-lawyers-ever-force-their-clients-to-act-in-their-best-interest/560498/
May 13, 1985: Philadelphia Police bomb MOVE Headquarters
On May 13, 1985, the Philadelphia police dropped two bombs onto MOVE headquarters killing 6 adults and 5 children. MOVE was a black liberation group founded in 1972 by a man who called himself John Africa. MOVE was devoted to several diverse causes. The bombs dropped on May 13, 1985 were one of the most violent attacks against civilians and the only aerial bombing carried out by a police force on U.S. soil.
The local police departments were supplied military equipment by federal authorities but had no training or preparation on how to properly use it. Two bombs were dropped on a row of houses in a residential area. The police and mayor claimed they intended to destroy just the MOVE bunker on top of a house. The bombs caused an explosion that hit a rooftop gas-powered generator sparking a fire that engulfed the row of houses surrounding the intended target. The firefighters were ordered by the police commissioner to stand down even after they were told there were children inside. By the time firefighters finally started battling the fire, it was too late. The bombing left more than 250 people homeless. In 1996, a jury found authorities had used excessive force and violated constitutional protections in the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution that prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/a-raid-is-set-for-move-headquarters
https://allthatsinteresting.com/1985-move-bombing
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/may/13/osage-avenue-bombing-philadelphia-30-years
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/05/13/406243272/im-from-philly-30-years-later-im-still-trying-to-make-sense-of-the-move-bombing
May 10th, 1994: Nelson Mandela Elected as South Africa's 1st Black President
On this day in history in 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected as South Africa’s first black president. Before elected the country suffered from Apartheid, a political system of segregation that imprisoned Mandela on charges of Treason and Sabotage. He was imprisoned for 27 years in South Africa while still fighting for the freedoms and human rights on his people. While he was in prison the government isolated him and shielded him from the public eye. In the process he was battling health issues but still maintained his strength until 1990 he was finally released. Upon his release he began persuading the public with his ideals giving him international praise. He was then able to win the election in 1994 where his administration began deconstructing the Apartheid system. During his presidency his administration developed The Truth and Reconciliation Commission aimed at investigating human rights and political violations committed during the Apartheid era. He also created a new Constitution for South Africans as well as improving the economic and social programs for the country. He served for one term but in these 14 years he managed to destroy Apartheid as well as rebuilding the system of human rights for his people which granted him a Nobel Peace Prize.
For more information, please visit:
https://blackhistory.today/may-10-2
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/nelson-mandela-1
May 9th, 1960: FDA Approves the Birth Control Pill, Granting Women Reproductive Agency
On this day in history 59 years ago, the Federal Drug Administration approved the first commercially produced contraceptive pill in the US. The pharmaceutical company G.D. Searle had applied to have this drug approved, and the public anxiously awaited the results. Birth control has granted women and men the ability to have jurisdiction over family-planning and therefore expanded horizons for education, careers, and the option of pursuing life at one's own pace. Thus, the approval of "the pill" marked a moment where agency and accessibility intersected in the women's rights movement.
However, it is important to note the deeply unethical medical practices that went into the testing of this drug. What are now referred to as the Puerto Rican Pill Trials, scientists exploited and dehumanized Puerto Rican women in order to gain enough human trials for FDA approval of this contraceptive. Many women were left permanently scarred with side effects from early versions of the pill, and this deceit and damage is yet to be institutionally acknowledged. Despite the freedom this invention has brought to many lives, it cannot be forgotten that marginalized communities were further preyed upon in order for more affluent communities to live in this reality today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-us-food-and-drug-administration-approves-pill/
https://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book-excerpts/health-article/a-brief-history-of-birth-control/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-puerto-rico-pill-trials/
May 8th, 2009: Ku Klux Klan Burns Cross in Alabama
On this day in history and only 10 years ago, two members of the Ku Klux Klan, Joshua Dinkle and Windell Smith burned a cross in an African American neighborhood in Ozark, Alabama. This neighborhood was targeted due to the racial makeup of the residents which was primarily African American. The two Ku Klux Klan members built a six foot cross specifically for the purpose of burning it. They dug a hole, placed the cross in it and lit it on fire. Dinkle and Windell orchestrated this in front of several houses with one goal in mind, to scare the African American community. Dinkle didn’t like that African Americans were occupying homes in that area and wanted to scare them away using an old Ku Klux Klan ritual. Both men were arrested and charged with conspiracy to violate housing rights.
This modern version of the Ku Klux Klan is unlike the initial organization that started in the 1870’s. The old Ku Klux Klan terrorized the African American community by making them fear their lives were in danger. The new Ku Klux Klan, while adopting the same look, is a white supremacist group with origins in the 1950's, primarily participating in rituals and protests.
For more information, please see:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/08
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1922/07/the-modern-ku-klux-klan/537081/
https://www.businessinsider.com/anthony-karens-photos-of-the-modern-day-ku-klux-klan-2014-4
May 7, 1955: Voting Rights Activist, Reverend George Lee is Killed.
On this day in history, Reverend George Lee, the co- founder of the Belzoni, Mississippi NAACP and the first African American to register to vote in Humphreys County since Reconstruction, was shot and killed.
Reverend Lee moved to Belzoni to preach, however his passion later became voting. He began working to register other African Americans to vote after the local Belzoni, NAACP was founded in 1953. He later became the chapter president and had successfully registered about 100 African Americans to vote. This was a huge accomplishment considering the high amount of violent retaliation towards black voters in the Deep South during this era. On May 7, while Rev. Lee was driving home, his car was riddled with bullets. When the NAACP came to investigate, the local sheriff denied that any homicide had occurred and that Rev. Lee was involved in a car accident and the bullets found in his jaw were “dental fillings”.
An investigation ensued and the NAACP found two members of a white supremacy group called White Citizens to be at fault, but this case quickly stalled after the prosecutor resisted any criminal charges. Reverend George Lee is considered one of the early martyrs of the Civil Rights Movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/07
https://www.splcenter.org/rev-george-lee
https://blackthen.com/rev-george-w-lee-murdered-for-not-giving-up-his-right-to-vote/
May 6, 1882: Chinese Exclusion Act Signed into Law
The Chinese Exclusion Act was signed by President Chester A. Arthur on this day. The Chinese Exclusion Act provided an absolute 10 year moratorium on Chinese labor immigration. It was federal law that discriminated and prohibited against an ethnic group from working in the United States. U.S. Congress also prohibited courts, both state and federal, from granting citizenship to any Chinese immigrants as they were ineligible for naturalization. The Chinese were the scapegoats for the declining wages and economic ills on the West Coast because they only composed of only .002% of the nation’s population.
Congress passed the exclusion act to calm white laborers about maintaining white “racial purity.” 10 years later, when the exclusion act expired in 1892, Congress extended it for another 10 years when it passed the Geary Act. Congress made it permanent in 1902. In 1943 during World War II, Congress repealed all of the exclusion acts. This idea, nevertheless, spurred later anti-immigration sentiment and legislation against other “undesirables.”
For more information, please see:
https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/on-this-day/may-6
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=47
https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882
May 3rd, 1948: Shelley v. Kraemer
On this day in history in 1948 the Supreme Court of the U.S ruled in Shelley V Kraumer that the enforcements of the racially restrictive covenants in state court violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1911, a neighborhood in ST. Louis, Missouri enacted a racially restrictive covenant signed by 30 out of 39 residents, designed to prevent African and Asian Americans from living in the area. When the Shelley’s moved in the neighborhood in 1945 they were sued by Louis Kraemer. The Circuit Court declined to enforce the covenant, it was then repealed by the Missouri Supreme Court which reversed the Circuit Courts decision. The Shelley’s appealed to the U.S Supreme Court which finally sought justice.
This case is significant in history because it removed the ability for neighborhoods to longer construct the privatization of segregated housing. This case gave the 14th amendment more power in protecting the people privately
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/334us1
https://study.com/academy/lesson/shelley-v-kraemer-summary-decision-significance.html
May 2nd, 1963: The Birmingham Children's Crusade
On this day in 1963, approximately one thousand teens left school in Birmingham, Alabama to protest and demand the desegregation of public facilities, leaving from Sixth Street Baptist Church to march through the city. During this time period especially, Birmingham was infamously known as one of the most racist cities in the US, with Martin Luther King Jr describing it as a “symbol of hard-core resistance to integration". As the students approached police lines, hundreds of them were arrested and held at local police stations; when the marches continued throughout the following days, the city commissioner ordered law enforcement to use force and halt demonstrations. When images of children being clubbed, pressure-hosed, and arrested appeared in newspapers and television, they sparked public outrage. The US Department of Justice stepped in to try and end the crusade, which led to President John F. Kennedy expressing support for federal civil rights legislation and the eventual passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
For more information, please visit:
https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog/childrens-crusade
https://www.biography.com/news/black-history-birmingham-childrens-crusade-1963-video
https://www.thedailybeast.com/how-the-children-of-birmingham-changed-the-civil-rights-movement
May 1st, 1950: The First Black Author to Win the Pulitzer Prize
On this day in history, Gwendolyn Brooks was the first black author to receive the Pulitzer Prize. Brooks showed much promise from a young age. She wrote her first poem when she was 13 years old and had her first poem published in a newspaper by the age of 17. Her career in poetry took off after that. She eventually published a book called Annie Allen (1949) that won her the Pulitzer Prize. The book was filled with poems that detailed many moments of her life, from early childhood memories, to the realization of adulthood including topics such as racism, killings, and death.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/gwendolyn-brooks
https://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/Today_B_History.html
April 30th, 1871: Camp Grant Massacre
On this day in history, eight Apache men and 110 Apache women and children were brutally murdered in their sleep. 28 additional Apache children were captured to be sold into the child slave trade. The perpetrators committed this atrocity in only 30 minutes. As the bodies were left to sit, a gruesome scene was waiting for the first person to arrive at the camp. Before the sun even rose, the malicious group responsible for this attack were already celebrating their “victory” over their defenseless, sleeping victims. They had decimated the camp, leaving one woman as the sole survivor.
The events leading up to the massacre were hostile. With thousands of people moving from the east, native land, livestock, and water resources were being exhausted. This and a host of other problems, such as diseases (introduced by the white man), make it easy to understand why tensions grew between the two groups. In the early months of 1871, the a group of Apache people had arrived at Camp Grant seeking refugee, food, and peace in exchange for their weapons and sovereignty. With this agreement, the U.S army allowed the group to live, farm, and hunt in designated areas. The immigrants of this area felt the Apache people were raiding their farms and resources and soon the Tucson area became a constant place for violence. There were a handful of attacks on both groups. Local farms were plundered and innocent people were murdered and kidnapped. The two groups were at war, protecting what they felt was theirs. However, the tip of the iceberg came in the pre-dawn hours of April 30th. Many white settlers and Mexicans in their area felt the problem was not going to get solved by the government, so they felt they needed to take matters into their own hands. A group of 48 white men and Mexicans made their way to Camp Grant, the place they had felt all their problems had originated. They quietly approached the camp where a group of Apache people were sleeping and made their attempt at genocide.
This massacre was not praised by federal government officials. On December 10, 1871, 104 suspected members were indicted and brought to a trial in Tucson. The trial was seen as a formality to please federal government officials and eastern sympathizers since the west did not believe the murder of native people was a crime. After five days of trial and a very quick, almost useless, 19-minute jury deliberation, all 104 indicted men were found not guilty and exonerated.
Fights between the Apache people, the white immigrants, and the Mexican people continued for several years. Many have never heard of or have forgotten the Camp Grant Massacre, but the Apache people have not.
Today, the area that once stood Camp Grant is now Central Arizona Community College.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.desertusa.com/desert-people/camp-grant-az.html
https://truewestmagazine.com/the-camp-grant-massacre/
http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/camp_grant.pdf
http://interstice.us/apachestelltheirstory/history-massacre.htm
April 29, 1992: Los Angeles Riots begin Following Acquittal of Police Officers Involved in Rodney King Beating:
The jury in Simi Valley, a suburb of Los Angeles acquitted four white police officers who used excessive force while arresting Rodney King. King was an African American motorist. On March 3, 1991 King was in a high-speed chase through the LA County streets before he surrendered to police. King had been uncooperative and intoxicated during the arrest. The police brutally beat and injured him in an attempt to force him into submission. After King was unable and incapable of resisting, the police continued to assault him. The video, captured by a witness, was sold to a TV station. When this video was released to the press, it sparked a nationwide debate about police brutality.
After the acquittal of the white police officers, the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 began at the intersection of Florence and Normandie in South Central Los Angeles. It left more than 50 people dead, more than 2,000 injured, and cost over $1 billion in damages. Although this started with the brutal and unnecessary beating of one black man, the tensions of racial harassment and discrimination had been bubbling for years and this riot was the most destructive civil disturbance in the United States during the 20th century.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/riots-erupt-in-los-angeles
https://daily.jstor.org/why-rodney-king-video-conviction/
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/rodney-king-trial-verdict-announced
https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/us/los-angeles-riots-fast-facts/index.html
https://www.britannica.com/event/Los-Angeles-Riots-of-1992
April 26th, 1970, Ohio State University Takeover
On this day in history, Ohio State University, much like other college campuses in this era, experienced a series of protests. Ohio State saw an uprising for women’s rights, a push for racial justice, and a call to end the Vietnam War. These issues, combined together and placed on a college campus, sprung mayhem before the administration of Ohio State University. On the heels of a student rally in which hundreds of students walked out of class, a wave of protests lasted for weeks. Nevertheless, the school administration refused to negotiate with them. This led to a strike that placed students face to face with the National Guard. Over the stretch of a few days, the strike was met with consistent police push back. The riots escalated and the group of students shifted to the thousands. It is miraculous that over the course of these protests, no one was fatally hurt. However, on this day, there were several people shot and severely injured in their fight for justice. Ultimately though, the school conceded and gave in to a number of the students' demands.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.thelantern.com/2010/05/1970-protests-erupted-across-ohio-tear-gas-at-osu/
http://plunderbund.com/2014/04/30/the-1970-ohio-state-riots-bigger-and-more-violent-than-kent-state/
April 25th, 1978: Supreme Court rules that pension plans cannot require women to pay more, according to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
On this day in 1978, the Supreme Court heard the case City of Los Angeles Department of Water & Power v. Manhart, which ruled that Federal laws protecting against sex discrimination in employment also prohibit employer-sponsored retirement plans from giving men and women unequal benefits, specifically under Title VII. Insurers had been claiming that because women live longer than men on average, they must either pay more towards their annuity fund or to receive smaller periodic benefits. However, the broad statement that women live longer than men was being applied to individuals, which does not line up with the fact that there is no way to determine any one person's lifespan. Essentially, the court found that employers were not regarding their female employees as unique individuals but rather by the 'average traits' of their sex. Nonetheless, Manhart has not resolved all of the issues related to women and pensions (ie. employer-added contributions, which end up creating a disincentive for hiring female employees because they will cost the employer more), but it did spark discourse around the idea that these forms of discrimination are pervasive and woven deeply into the details of formal/informal interactions.
For more information, please visit:
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/435/702/
https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/07/us/high-court-bans-unequal-pensions-for-the-two-sexes.html
https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2707&context=dlj
April 24th, 1959: Second March for School Integration in Washington
On this day in 1877, the remaining federal troops were pulled out of the south after the Civil War. Louisiana was the last confederate state to have troops in it. The troops were there to uphold new laws and amendments, such as giving former slaves political rights. The hope was that by enforcing these new laws, the southern inhabitants would learn to accept these laws and America could be a desegregated place for all.
After the troops departed, white supremacy came to light once again. African Americans were heavily discriminated against and racial segregation was the new law of the land. Many African Americans were proud to have rights, but when they tried to assert them, they were murdered. Many white plantation owners attacked former slaves trying to deprive their freedom in order to make them a slave again.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/apr/24
April 23, 2015: Loretta Lynch is the First African American Woman to be Appointed as US Attorney General
On this day in 2015, Loretta Lynch made history by becoming the first African American woman to be confirmed as U.S. Attorney General. Her confirmation took months longer than the confirmations of the previous, seven attorney generals. After five long months of battle in the Senate, she was confirmed with the senate voting 56-43, and Vice President Joe Biden saying, “Ladies and gentleman, it is about time." She took office three days later.
During her time as Attorney General, Lynch made issues such as police reform her priority. She conducted investigations into law-enforcement departments across various cities. Most notable were her investigations into Baltimore and Chicago following many high-profile allegations of police brutality, with Baltimore agreeing to implement many changes that were recommended by the Department of Justice. Lynch also focused on civil rights, specifically minority rights. She advocated for the rights of the LGBTQ community. One of her most notable examples was in 2016, when she sued North Carolina over a law that forced transgender people to use public restrooms and locker rooms that matched their biological sex. She claimed this violated their civil rights.
Loretta Lynch only served two years in office, with her leaving office at the end of Obama’s presidency in January 2017. However, it can be said without a doubt that she will forever hold a place in history as the first African- American woman to serve as U.S. Attorney General.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/23/politics/loretta-lynch-attorney-general-vote/index.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Loretta-Lynch
https://www.washingtonpost.com
April 22, 1892: Birthday of Vernon Johns
Vernon Johns was born on April 22, 1892. From 1947-1952, he was a pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. Johns had a close professional and personal relationship with Martin Luther King Jr. who described him as impressively vocal in the face of injustice. King later succeeds Johns as the minister of the Dexter Baptist Church. Johns was an early proponent of civil rights movement in Montgomery, urging his congregation to challenge society's status quo of racial discrimination. His early activism and challenge to the power structure laid the foundation for the socially active ministry of King. On one occasion, Johns paid his bus fare, but refused and demanded his money back when he was directed to sit in the back of the bus. Johns set the stage for the well-known protest on December 1, 1955 by Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott that followed.
In 1915, Vernon Johns graduated from the Boydton Institute and Virginia Theological Seminary and College. Afterwards, he attended the University of Chicago’s Graduate School of Theology and in 1926, Johns became the first African-American to publish his work in the Best Sermons of the Year. He was the president of Lynchburg’s Virginia Theological Seminary and College from 1929 to 1933. After resigning from Dexter Baptist Church, Johns continued as a guest preacher at churches and colleges around the country.
For more information, please see:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/johns-vernon
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/johns-vernon-napoleon-1892-1965/
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott
April 19th, 1969, Willard Straight Hall Takeover:
On this day in 1969, Afro-American Society (AAS) members occupied Willard Straight Hall at Cornell University. Due to its past racial tensions, this urged AAS students to protest against the judicial system and its slow progress in establishing a Black Studies program. During the takeover, it had been parent’s weekend at the University and students began ejecting parents out of their rooms. This prompted some fraternity students to attempt to take the building back, but their attempt was not successful. Many of the students began to arm themselves to properly defend themselves in case of another attack. Then, they were joined by members of the Students for a Democratic Society who formed the protective cordon outside of the building, lasting for 36 hours.
This day in history is significant because it marks a transformative change for school policy in terms of dealing with minorities. Not only were students who protested given the Black Studies program, but it also erupted a nationwide trend in schools as well as development of the Henderson Law.
For more information, please visit:
http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2009/04/campus-takeover-symbolized-era-change
https://www.hoover.org/research/day-cornell-died
April 18th, 1959: Second March for School Integration in Washington
On this day in 1959, A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin organized students in Washington DC for a second march that fought for desegregated schools (following an earlier march in 1958). The march began at the National Mall and headed towards the National Sylvan Theater with around 26,000 people in attendance. The event's main speech was given by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.; most notably, he said, "as I gaze upon this great historic assembly, this unprecedented gathering of young people, I cannot help thinking-that a hundred years from now the historians will be calling this not the 'beat' generation, but the generation of integration". A group of the students went to the White House to demand action from President Eisenhower, who reportedly claimed that he was just as eager to see an America without discrimination as they were. Ultimately, these school desegregation marches paved the way for activism and legislation throughout the 60s.
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/youth-march-integrated-schools
https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/school-desegregation-student-march/
http://www.dcstatehoodyeswecan.org/j/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=320:april-18-1959-youth-march-for-integrated-schools&catid=100:mlk-dc&Itemid=80
April 16, 1862: DC Compensation Emancipation Act Signed into Legislation.
On this day, President Abraham Lincoln signed into legislation abolishing slavery in District of Columbia nearly nine months before he made his famous Emancipation Proclamation. Washington D.C. became the capitol city in 1791 and by 1862 it had become a city of contrast. Being the capitol, the city housed Congress and represented states who were pro-slavery but also abolitionist states. Due to this, D.C. became a center for slavery and the slave trade while at the same time, a hub for anti-slavery activity and home of abolitionists. As a result of this struggle, The DC Compensated Emancipation Act of 1862 was passed by Congress and signed by President Abraham Lincoln. The act ended slavery in Washington DC, freeing nearly 3,100 individuals and compensated those who had legally owned them. The act also offered the newly freed women and men money to emigrate.
Every April 16th, this day is celebrated as DC Emancipation Day to honor the courage and struggle of those who fought to make this reality.
For more information, please visit:
https://emancipation.dc.gov/page/ending-slavery-district-columbia
https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/spring/dcslavery.html
April 15, 1947: Jackie Robinson Breaks Color Barrier in Major League Baseball
Today is Jackie Robinson Day. Robinson was 28 when he became the first African-American player in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the 20th century. He was called up from the minor leagues by the Brooklyn Dodgers. Robinson was a star-athlete playing varsity baseball, basketball, football and track for UCLA. He joined the U.S. Army in 1942, commissioning as a 2nd lieutenant. He was honorably discharged after protesting racial discrimination during his military service.
He first stepped onto the field on April 15, 1947. Robinson faced tremendous racial discrimination during his career on and off the field. In the South, Jim Crow laws prevented Robinson from staying at the same hotels and eating at the same restaurants with the rest of his white teammates. Despite the racial discrimination, he excelled in the MLB. He was named Rookie of the Year in 1947, won the National League MVP (Most Valuable Player) in 1949, played on the National League All-star team from 1949 through 1954, led the Dodgers to 6 National League pennants, and won the World Series in 1955. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 during his first year of eligibility. His number 42 was retired league-wide in 1997. After retiring in 1957, Jackie Robinson became a businessman and civil rights activist. Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier opening a door which, the rest of the African-American players who have played and are playing in the MLB, have walked through.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.biography.com/athlete/jackie-robinson
https://www.mlb.com/news/2019-jackie-robinson-day-events
April 12, 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. Jailed in Birmingham
On this day, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and jailed in Birmingham Alabama for violating an anti-protest injunction. King and many other civil rights leaders went to Birmingham to address the alarming segregation systems that persisted during this time. The city was one of the most segregated in the county with extreme levels of injustice. For this reason, the Birmingham Campaign took off with a series of mass meetings, direct actions and lunch counter sit-ins. Following the campaign, the city government produced a state circuit court injunction against the protests. Although members of the campaign were low on bail funds, King chanced it and participated in the protest leading to his arrest.
While King was held in solitary confinement, he wrote the famous “Letter from Birmingham Jail” addressing what called him to travel to Birmingham and insisting non-violence. He also admonished white moderates and white churches for not doing more to help with the movements quest for equality.
For more information, please visit:
kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/birmingham-campaign
www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1389
April 11th, 1968: Civil Rights Act of 1968 is signed by President Johnson
On this day 51 years ago, the 1968 Civil Rights Act was signed and made effective by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This legislation outlined housing rights that were to be protected by the law and was part of a wave of acts that President Johnson signed (including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965). This additional act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin. It is commonly referred to as the Fair Housing Act as well as the Indian Civil Rights Act, since Title II through VII detailed how many, but not all, of the guarantees of the Bill of Rights are to be applicable within Native American tribes. Most notably, this act provided new federal protections that people are now able to reference and be protected by.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/fair-housing-act
https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/5-facts-about-the-civil-rights-act-of-1968
https://legcounsel.house.gov/Comps/civil68.pdf
April 10th, 1956: Nat Cole King was Attacked while Performing
On this day, Nat Cole King, a famous pianist and vocalist, was giving a performance to an all white audience in Birmingham, Alabama when he was rushed by four white men who assaulted him. The men were apprehended quickly by the police and charged for inciting a riot. Nat proved to be physically okay, but told the white audience of 4,000 that he could not go on with his performance. He still went on to perform later that night for a full black audience.
Nat Cole King had to perform two different concerts due to the Jim Crow laws that were in place. He felt disrespected and hurt after being attacked by a few men from the white audience. He apologized to the crowd but said he was unable to continue.
For more information, please visit:
https://idnc.library.illinois.edu/cgi-bin/illinois?a=d&d=DIL19560411.2.11
http://todayinclh.com/?event=birmingham-racists-attack-nat-king-cole-on-stage
April 9, 1865: General Robert E. Lee Surrenders Ending the American Civil War
On this day in history, General Robert E. Lee surrenders ending the American Civil War. At the Appomattox Court House, Virginia, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his 28,000 troops to Union General Ulysses S. Grant. Forced to abandon the Confederate Capitol of Richmond, blocked from joining surviving Confederate force in North Carolina, and harassed constantly by Union cavalry, failures were mounting daily. Lee had no other option but to send a message to Grant announcing his willingness to surrender.
The American Civil War broke out due to differences in the views of the northern and southern states. The most common being the economic differences. While the North relied on manufacturing and industry, the South’s economy was based on a system of large scale farming that depended on the labor of slaves. The South believe in persevering their traditions and institutions, the biggest among these being slavery. With growing negative sentiment towards the idea of slavery, many southern states feared that the back bone of their economy, slavery, was in danger of being abolished. With the election of Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President as the final straw, several southern state seceded to form the Confederate States of America (with more to come), setting off a chain of events that would lead to the American Civil War.
The Union victory of the American Civil War was paramount to the abolition of slavery with the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery and fully becoming an amendment to the Constitution just months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-history
https://www.history.com/news/why-the-civil-war-actually-ended-16-months-after-lee-surrendered
April 8, 1864: U.S. Senate Passes 13th Amendment Abolishing Slavery
On April 8, 1864, the Thirteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was passed by the Senate. The 13th Amendment prohibits slavery and involuntary servitude. This constitutional amendment prohibited slavery serving as a crucial step in preventing discrimination against race, however, by no means is the United States a nation free of racism. The Thirteenth Amendment, to this day, holds that slavery and involuntary servitude may be allowed as punishment for a crime.
However, the Thirteenth Amendment allowed opportunities to a new class of freemen. Four years later, on July 9, 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted mandating that citizens of the United States have “equal protection.” This equal protection clause has been vital to a wide variety of landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education. As a third protection of freedom, the Fifteenth Amendment was passed on February 3, 1870 to protect citizens' right to vote regardless of their “race, color or previous condition of servitude.” The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, known as the Reconstruction Amendments, are regarded as the largest expansion of civil rights in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://wtop.com/media-galleries/2019/04/today-in-history-april-8/slide/1/
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thirteenth-amendment
http://www.pbs.org/black-culture/explore/emancipation-reconstruction-and-slavery-by-another-name/
https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/jim-crow-laws
https://americanhistory.si.edu/changing-america-emancipation-proclamation-1863-and-march-washington-1963/1863/impact-and-legacy
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxv
April 5th, 1856: Booker T. Washington is Born
On April 5th, 1856, an influential African American leader was born by the name Booker Taliaferro Washington, more commonly known as Booker T. Washington. Washington was one of the last generation of leaders born into slavery. After the Emancipation Proclamation granted him freedom, he educated himself, learning how to read and write. In his pursuit of a formal education, he enrolled in Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. Washington later went on to become a teacher at his former high school. He was later selected to run a school now called Tuskegee University for African Americans which taught trades and professions. While expanding this institute, Washington was recognized globally for these efforts as well as other services. He became a very influential spokesman for African Americans, appearing on television as well as visiting the white house. His momentous speech was given at the Atlanta Exposition where he shared his controversial “Atlanta Compromise” sentiments. This philosophy received much backlash from some African Americans including W.E.B Dubois suggesting his ideals were racially subservient.
Washington believed that if African Americans were to win the same status as white Americans, they must work hard, obtain financial independence and cultural advancement. He thought it was necessary to accept disenfranchisement and segregation as long as African Americans are granted education and economic opportunities along with justice.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Booker-T-Washington
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/booker-t-washington
April 4th, 1968: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is Assassinated in Memphis
On this day 51 years ago, civil rights activist and movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. was fatally shot while staying at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He had come to Memphis to support the sanitation workers’ strike, which was aimed at fighting for better wages and working conditions. The assassin, James Earl Ray, had escaped a maximum-security prison and was known for being extremely racist, viewing King’s success in attaining civil rights for African American’s a threat to his political and social ideologies.
This deeply tumultuous moment instigated rioting in cities across the United States, for King’s assassination represented both a material and symbolic loss for civil rights activists nationwide. In the days following his death, over 27,000 people were arrested for charges related to arson, looting, and violence in these riots. A few days after his death, Coretta Scott King (King's wife) led a march in Memphis to commemorate both her husband and the sanitation workers that King had supported. King’s words live on and continue to be cited for their power to instill hope and inspire action.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/martin-luther-king-jr-assassination
https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/04/04/day-martin-luther-king-jr-died-voices-movement-episode/ http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/april-2018-assassination-dr-martin-luther-king-jr
April 3, 1968: Martin Luther King Jr. Gives His Last Speech:
On this day in 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his last speech at Bishop Charles Mason Temple in Memphis, Tennessee. The speech was titled “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop”. It was delivered in support of striking sanitation workers in Memphis. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated 20 hours later. His speech signaled that his time was limited. “We’ve got some difficult days ahead… But it really doesn’t matter with me now, because I’ve been to the mountaintop … I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land”.
Many people wonder whether Martin Luther King Jr. had knowledge or intuition about the assassination based off of the words in his last speech. However, there is no evidence that he knew of any information pertaining to the assassination.
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/ive-been-mountaintop
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgVrlx68v-0
April 2, 1933: Reuben Micou, Lynched in Winston County, Mississippi
On April 2, 1933, 65-year-old Reuben Micou was kidnapped from the Winston County, Mississippi jail by a mob of white men with the intent to kill and lynch Micou. The day prior, he had been arrested by police after he had an altercation with a well-known, local white man. Micou’s body was found lynched in a nearby churchyard, riddled with gunshot wounds and hosting injuries suggesting that he had been whipped repeatedly. In this era, Black people bore a heavy burden. The presumption of guilt they carried was unbeatable. Many African Americans, especially throughout the South, were beaten, killed, and lynched due to false allegations or accusations of small, non-serious crimes. Some were not crimes at all, such as arguing or insulting a white person, accidentally touching or complementing a white woman, or, as in this case, defending yourself against a white aggressor.
A week later on July 15, seventeen men were arrested and indicted for participating in the lynching. This was extremely rare during this time. Mobs acted with impunity, rarely facing consequences for their actions including murder. However, despite signs of an actual prosecution, by late July 1933, all seventeen cases were “indefinitely postponed” and all charges were eventually dismissed.
To this day, no one has been tried or convicted for the lynching and murder of Reuben Micou.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/apr/02
https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5506047/reuben_micou_29_jul_1933/
https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5505993/reuben_micou_13_jul_1933/
April 1, 2003: Gratz v. Bollinger, Racial Discrimination in College Admissions
On this day, the United States Supreme Court heard oral arguments for the Gratz v. Bollinger case. The Supreme Court declared the undergraduate admission system at University of Michigan, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LSA), which prioritized the race of an applicant over other factors, was unconstitutional. Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher both applied and they were of Caucasian descent. They were denied admission to the LSA. The Office of Undergraduate Admissions (OAS) procedure considers a number of factors such as high school GPA, standardized test scores, and leadership. It also admitted every qualified student who is an underrepresented minority. Gratz and Hamacher filed a class action lawsuit arguing the admission procedure discriminated against ethnic and racial groups violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (1964).
The Supreme Court delivered the opinion 6-3 holding the OUA’s policies did not provide individual consideration and were not narrowly tailored to meet strict standards. The LSA admissions point system of acceptance was unconstitutional because race should not give points to minorities. The acceptance should be individualized. Justices Steven, Souter and Ginsburg dissented stating race was just one of many factors in the acceptance process. They also stated racial oppression is still visible in society and universities should consider racial information as it shows what the student has accomplished.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2002/02-516?page=31
https://www.cir-usa.org/cases/gratz-v-bollinger-grutter-v-bollinger/
https://ballotpedia.org/Gratz_v._Bollinger
On this day in 1921, in the small highly segregated city of Tulsa, Oklahoma, one of the worst incidents of racial violence in U.S. history occurred. The city had already suffered from the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan as well as many lynchings. Given the area's propensity for racial tension, the day prior to the massacre, a young black teen named Dick Rowland walked into an elevator that had a white elevator operator. Soon after Rowland entered the elevator, a woman screams and he fleas the scene, causing someone to call the police that would eventually arrest him. After he was arrested rumors flared through the city and a newspaper published an article saying that Rowland had sexually assaulted the woman. This prompted the devastating riots. White mobs surrounded the courthouse and when confronted by blacks who had been defending Rowland, an angry assault began. The next day, thousands of whites flooded the black community of Greenwood. They burned down over a thousand homes and killed over a hundred people, leaving many people traumatized by such a devastating event. After 18 grueling hours, the national guard arrived and the violence subsided.
This event is one of the most severe riots in history, but it is often forgotten due to the city's efforts of covering up the event and deleting it from newspaper archives. Since then, however, U.S. Department of Education has worked to implement this event into history classes in Oklahoma.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/tulsa-race-riot
https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/
May 30th, 1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act Passes, Foreshadowing the Civil War
On this day in 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act which essentially allowed people in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders and thereby repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 (prohibited slavery north of latitude 36°30´). Tensions heightened between pro-slavery and anti-slavery activists, since the North had considered the Missouri Compromise a permanent and binding agreement. The anti-slavery settlers held another election, however pro-slavery settlers refused to vote. This resulted in the establishment of two opposing legislatures within the Kansas territory. In support of the pro-slavery settlers, President Franklin Pierce sent in Federal troops to stop the violence and disperse the anti-slavery legislature. Another election was called, and once again pro-slavery supporters were charged with election fraud. This tension came just before the Civil War, which was an attempt to solve disputes between Northern and Southern state regarding slavery. It is important to understand the political events, such as the discourse around this Act, that led up to the Civil War: a fight that has shaped American history.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kansas-Nebraska-Act
http://www.historyplace.com/lincoln/kansas.htm
https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/kansas.html
May 29th, 1851 Sojourner Truth: Ain't I A Woman speech in Akron, Ohio
On this day in history, a black women who was born into slavery in New York, Isabella Baumfree, had a grueling life and had to deal with many inequalities as she was black and a woman. Isabella later changed her name to Sojourner Truth. Sojourner left her slave owner as he broke a promise to let her go after many years. She told people she did not run way, rather she walked off in daylight. Truth was an advocate for rights for blacks and women. Truth later attended a Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. As she was a magnificent speaker, she gave her famous speech known as Ain’t I a Woman. This speech was in support of women and to say that they deserve rights as much as men do.
Here is a famous quote from her famous speech: “That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have plowed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?”
Truth's impact can still be felt today as women are as empowered and equal to men than they have been in the past. Of course there is much more work to be done to ensure women and men are equals, but Truth’s words can help push society in the right direction.
For more information, please visit:
https://sojournertruthmemorial.org/sojourner-truth/her-words/
https://www.nps.gov/articles/sojourner-truth.htm
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/29
May 24th, 1961 Freedom Riders Arrested After Successful Trip to Jacjson, Mississippi
In 1961, amid the civil rights movement, a group of white and black civil rights activists, organized by the Congress of Racial Equality, made it their primary concern to protest the southern states refusing to desegregate bus terminals. They specifically were aiming to test a recent Supreme Court case, Boynton v. Virginia, which ruled that segregation of interstate transportation facilities was unconstitutional. In the first wave of bus rides through Alabama that had started on the May 14th, the riders were viciously attacked by white protesters, and some were jailed. After such devastating results the organizers of the Freedom Ride cancelled the rest of the trips in those regions and flew to New Orleans. However, there were some activists that had wanted to continue along the initial route, wanting to continue from Alabama. Thus, the second round of riders set out on buses on the 24th and departed for Jackson, Mississippi where the riders were greeted by hundreds of supporters. When the riders attempted to use the whites only facilities there they were arrested by the masses. The judge sentenced them to a month and they were assigned to Alabama’s worst prison, at the Parchman facility.
Swiftly, attorneys for the NAACP took actions reversing the court decision. This allowed the continuation of the freedom rides. They went on for a few months putting pressure on the Kennedy administration and urging them to issue regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/freedom-rides
http://todayinclh.com/?event=freedom-riders-arrested-in-jackson-secret-deal-by-ag-robert-kennedy
May 23rd, 1796: President George Washington issues a reward for capturing a black woman fleeing enslavement
On this day in 1796, an advertisement was put out in the newspaper offering a reward for the capture of Ona “Oney” Judge, an enslaved black woman who had “absconded from the household of the President of the United States,” George Washington. Oney was given to Martha Washington (George Washington's wife) by her father and had been held enslaved as part of the Washington estate since she was ten years old. A few days prior, to this ad being put out, Oney had successfully fled to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which had become prominent as a hub of abolitionism. The Washingtons offered a $10 reward for Ms. Judge's return to bondage, but she evaded capture, married, had several children and lived for more than fifty years as a free woman in New Hampshire. She died there, still free, on February 25, 1848. In order for the the painful history of slavery to be understood in a nuanced manner, it must be regarded in context of other popular historical figures and events.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/george-washington-and-the-slave-who-got-away
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/judge-ona-oney-1773-1848/
https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/bj5nj5/oney-judge-escaped-enslavement-by-george-washington
May 22, 1872: The Amnesty Act of 1872 Restores Confederates' Rights
On this day in history, President Ulysses Grant signed the Amnesty Act. This restored many rights to almost everyone who was involved in the Confederate army. There was an exception for about 500 Confederate sympathizers, many of whom were among the highest of rank in the Confederate army. Under this act, voting rights, the right to win property, the right to make laws in the south, and the right to hold office were all included. This act would prove to be very important in the years to come.
Due to this act, oppressive ideologies became prevalent in the south again. Many white segregationists were able to hold office after this act was passed. The white supremacy rhetoric spread quickly becoming the new norm in the south. This helped give rise to groups such as the Klu Klux Klan who would terrorize the black community and suppress them from using the very rights that Confederate supporters retained through this act.
For more information, please visit:
http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-69.htm
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/22
https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/plea-for-amnesty/
May 21, 1919: The House Passes the 19th Amendment.
With World War I looming over the country, the House of Representatives passed a constitutional amendment granting the women the right to vote. The amendment passed with a vote of 274 to 136. However, the Senate failed to pass the amendment. This meant that the measure had to be reintroduced in the House with the 66th Congress (1919-1921). It was again passed on May 21st by a vote of 304 to 90, with the Senate voting to pass the amendment shortly after. The 19th amendment was finally ratified in August 1920.
“How shall we answer their challenge, gentlemen: how shall we explain to them the meaning of democracy if the same Congress that voted for war to make the world a safe for democracy refuses to give this small measure of democracy to the women of out country?” - Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana, who became the first women to serve in Congress, speaks to Congress as she pushes for the passing of the 19th amendment.
For more information, please visit:
https://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35873
https://history.house.gov/Blog/2018/January/1-10-Suffrage-Committee/
https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/lawmakers-celebrate-100th-anniversary-of-women-getting-the-right-to-vote/ar-AABGQs1
May 20, 1961: Freedom Riders attacked in bus depot
On May 20, 1961, a full bus of Freedom Riders was attacked by 300 white separationists in Montgomery, Alabama. The Freedom Riders were a team of freedom fighters made up of black and white civil rights activists. White separationists swarmed a full bus of Freedom Riders at a bus depot. The Freedom Riders were attacked with baseball bats, bicycle chains, iron pipes and after that, the bus was set on fire. The white Freedom Riders were singled out as traitors and received worse beatings. Although the disappearances and lynching of black bodies hardly makes any news, the white bodies that were attacked made international news.
The Freedom Riders were protesting against widespread racial segregation in southern states. These states had refused to acknowledge or enforce the Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that segregated buses were unconstitutional. Fred Gray and Charles D. Langford filed a lawsuit in February 1, 1956 on behalf of four African American women, Aurelia S. Browder, Susie McDonald, Claudette Colvin and Mary Louise Smith, who were arrested after refusing to surrender their seats to white passengers on public buses. The Supreme Court affirmed a ruling by the federal court that found segregated bus laws in Montgomery, Alabama to be unconstitutional because it was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and civil rights statutes for the Reconstruction-era. This, had it been effective, would have enacted the opposite of the “separate but equal” practice decided in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
For more information, please visit:
https://blackthen.com/may-20-1961-freedom-riders-attacked-montgomery-alabama-2/
https://www.wcpo.com/news/our-community/how-a-white-cincinnati-freedom-rider-helped-learned-from-black-civil-rights-activists-in-the-60s
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/342
http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/November/Supreme-Court-Outlaws-Bus-Segregation.html
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/browder-v-gayle-352-us-903
May 16th, 1956: Mississippi State Agency Hires Secret Spies to Fight Integration
On this day in 1956, the Mississippi Sovereignty Commission voted to hire secret agents that would collect information for them on civil rights activity in the area. Years later, the Commission's files were opened and it was revealed that the group had retained private detective agencies, hired private individuals, and did in fact hire several conservative African-Americans who served as spies. The agency was given unusual authority to investigate citizens, even though it was not attached to any law enforcement agency. During its existence from 1956 to 1977, the commission profiled more than 87,000 people associated with/suspected to be associated with the civil rights movement, which it vehemently opposed.
James Coleman, the then governor of Mississippi, was quoted during his swearing in saying, "I have not the slightest fear that four years hence when my successor stands here on this same spot to assume his official oath, the separation of the races in Mississippi will be left intact and will still be in full force and effect in exactly the same manner and form as we know it today". Eventually, funding ended and the Commission officially closed, but its attack on civil rights, including its involvement in the murdering of activists, tainted the lives of many.
For more information, please visit:
http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/243/mississippi-sovereignty-commission-an-agency-history
https://timeline.com/mississippi-state-sovereignty-commission-4450b7f056a3
http://www.upress.state.ms.us/books/496
May 15, 1970: Police Open Fire on a Group of College Students Protesting at Jackson State College
On this day, Mississippi police opened fire on a group of student who were protesting at Jackson State College. The police claimed that they saw a sniper on a girls dormitory top floor. This claim was never proven true; the FBI never found evidence of a sniper. There were 12 people injured and two young black men lost their lives. The protest was in response to the Vietnam war, and more specifically, in response to the US invading Cambodia.
The protesters began by setting fires and eventually lit a dump truck on fire. At this point, the police intervened and took control of the situation. The police response, however, was lethal. Their response came days after a similar situation that took place at Kent State University in Ohio. The National Guard had killed four people they. Both of these events made national news and brought to light the resistance college students faced as they protested.
No arrests were made at the scene in Mississippi and no one was held responsible for the death of the two young men. It is said that this incident can still be felt on the campus of Jackson State College. There is now a plaque commemorating the men who lost their lives. The bullet holes in the woman’s dormitory remain there to this day.
For more information, please see:
https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/today-in-history-the-1970-killings-at-jackson-state-college/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/15
May 14, 2018: McCoy vs Louisiana
On this day in history, the Supreme Court ruled that a criminal defendant, under the Sixth Amendment, has a right to ultimately decide his innocence or guilt, not the lawyers.
Robert McCoy was on trial for first degree murder of his son, mother, and step-father of his wife. He was assigned a public defender and repeatedly stated that he was innocent and he desired to plead not guilty. However, in December 2009, McCoy moved to have his attorney removed because he felt that his counsel was not following his wishes to plead innocent or assisting him in proving his innocence. He then received new counsel and they recommended that he take a plea, however McCoy maintained his innocence. Despite his desire to plead innocent, his new counsel told him he would concede guilt anyway. McCoy was denied his request to discharge his attorney and the trial continued. His counsel continued to concede McCoy’s guilt and pushed for second-degree murder. The jury found McCoy guilty of first-degree murder and recommended the death penalty.
McCoy appealed to the Supreme Court, stating that it was his counsel's duty to defend him in his decision to plead innocent. The Supreme Court agreed. Inherent in the Sixth Amendment’s right of assistance is the autonomy of a criminal defendant to choose the objective of his defense even if the counsel feels otherwise. In this decision, they distinguished decisions that can be made by the counsel and those are are reserved for the client. The court ruled that counsel’s may make decision in relation to “trial management” such as which witnesses to call to testify or raising certain objections. However, all decisions relating towards the right to waive a jury trial, to testify on one’s behalf, whether to plead guilty, or forgo an appeal are all exclusively for the client to decide. The Supreme Court ruled 6-3 in favor of McCoy and granted him a new trial.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/16-8255
https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/17pdf/16-8255_i4ek.pdf
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/05/should-lawyers-ever-force-their-clients-to-act-in-their-best-interest/560498/
May 13, 1985: Philadelphia Police bomb MOVE Headquarters
On May 13, 1985, the Philadelphia police dropped two bombs onto MOVE headquarters killing 6 adults and 5 children. MOVE was a black liberation group founded in 1972 by a man who called himself John Africa. MOVE was devoted to several diverse causes. The bombs dropped on May 13, 1985 were one of the most violent attacks against civilians and the only aerial bombing carried out by a police force on U.S. soil.
The local police departments were supplied military equipment by federal authorities but had no training or preparation on how to properly use it. Two bombs were dropped on a row of houses in a residential area. The police and mayor claimed they intended to destroy just the MOVE bunker on top of a house. The bombs caused an explosion that hit a rooftop gas-powered generator sparking a fire that engulfed the row of houses surrounding the intended target. The firefighters were ordered by the police commissioner to stand down even after they were told there were children inside. By the time firefighters finally started battling the fire, it was too late. The bombing left more than 250 people homeless. In 1996, a jury found authorities had used excessive force and violated constitutional protections in the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution that prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/a-raid-is-set-for-move-headquarters
https://allthatsinteresting.com/1985-move-bombing
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/may/13/osage-avenue-bombing-philadelphia-30-years
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/05/13/406243272/im-from-philly-30-years-later-im-still-trying-to-make-sense-of-the-move-bombing
May 10th, 1994: Nelson Mandela Elected as South Africa's 1st Black President
On this day in history in 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected as South Africa’s first black president. Before elected the country suffered from Apartheid, a political system of segregation that imprisoned Mandela on charges of Treason and Sabotage. He was imprisoned for 27 years in South Africa while still fighting for the freedoms and human rights on his people. While he was in prison the government isolated him and shielded him from the public eye. In the process he was battling health issues but still maintained his strength until 1990 he was finally released. Upon his release he began persuading the public with his ideals giving him international praise. He was then able to win the election in 1994 where his administration began deconstructing the Apartheid system. During his presidency his administration developed The Truth and Reconciliation Commission aimed at investigating human rights and political violations committed during the Apartheid era. He also created a new Constitution for South Africans as well as improving the economic and social programs for the country. He served for one term but in these 14 years he managed to destroy Apartheid as well as rebuilding the system of human rights for his people which granted him a Nobel Peace Prize.
For more information, please visit:
https://blackhistory.today/may-10-2
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/nelson-mandela-1
May 9th, 1960: FDA Approves the Birth Control Pill, Granting Women Reproductive Agency
On this day in history 59 years ago, the Federal Drug Administration approved the first commercially produced contraceptive pill in the US. The pharmaceutical company G.D. Searle had applied to have this drug approved, and the public anxiously awaited the results. Birth control has granted women and men the ability to have jurisdiction over family-planning and therefore expanded horizons for education, careers, and the option of pursuing life at one's own pace. Thus, the approval of "the pill" marked a moment where agency and accessibility intersected in the women's rights movement.
However, it is important to note the deeply unethical medical practices that went into the testing of this drug. What are now referred to as the Puerto Rican Pill Trials, scientists exploited and dehumanized Puerto Rican women in order to gain enough human trials for FDA approval of this contraceptive. Many women were left permanently scarred with side effects from early versions of the pill, and this deceit and damage is yet to be institutionally acknowledged. Despite the freedom this invention has brought to many lives, it cannot be forgotten that marginalized communities were further preyed upon in order for more affluent communities to live in this reality today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-us-food-and-drug-administration-approves-pill/
https://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book-excerpts/health-article/a-brief-history-of-birth-control/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-puerto-rico-pill-trials/
May 8th, 2009: Ku Klux Klan Burns Cross in Alabama
On this day in history and only 10 years ago, two members of the Ku Klux Klan, Joshua Dinkle and Windell Smith burned a cross in an African American neighborhood in Ozark, Alabama. This neighborhood was targeted due to the racial makeup of the residents which was primarily African American. The two Ku Klux Klan members built a six foot cross specifically for the purpose of burning it. They dug a hole, placed the cross in it and lit it on fire. Dinkle and Windell orchestrated this in front of several houses with one goal in mind, to scare the African American community. Dinkle didn’t like that African Americans were occupying homes in that area and wanted to scare them away using an old Ku Klux Klan ritual. Both men were arrested and charged with conspiracy to violate housing rights.
This modern version of the Ku Klux Klan is unlike the initial organization that started in the 1870’s. The old Ku Klux Klan terrorized the African American community by making them fear their lives were in danger. The new Ku Klux Klan, while adopting the same look, is a white supremacist group with origins in the 1950's, primarily participating in rituals and protests.
For more information, please see:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/08
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1922/07/the-modern-ku-klux-klan/537081/
https://www.businessinsider.com/anthony-karens-photos-of-the-modern-day-ku-klux-klan-2014-4
May 7, 1955: Voting Rights Activist, Reverend George Lee is Killed.
On this day in history, Reverend George Lee, the co- founder of the Belzoni, Mississippi NAACP and the first African American to register to vote in Humphreys County since Reconstruction, was shot and killed.
Reverend Lee moved to Belzoni to preach, however his passion later became voting. He began working to register other African Americans to vote after the local Belzoni, NAACP was founded in 1953. He later became the chapter president and had successfully registered about 100 African Americans to vote. This was a huge accomplishment considering the high amount of violent retaliation towards black voters in the Deep South during this era. On May 7, while Rev. Lee was driving home, his car was riddled with bullets. When the NAACP came to investigate, the local sheriff denied that any homicide had occurred and that Rev. Lee was involved in a car accident and the bullets found in his jaw were “dental fillings”.
An investigation ensued and the NAACP found two members of a white supremacy group called White Citizens to be at fault, but this case quickly stalled after the prosecutor resisted any criminal charges. Reverend George Lee is considered one of the early martyrs of the Civil Rights Movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/07
https://www.splcenter.org/rev-george-lee
https://blackthen.com/rev-george-w-lee-murdered-for-not-giving-up-his-right-to-vote/
May 6, 1882: Chinese Exclusion Act Signed into Law
The Chinese Exclusion Act was signed by President Chester A. Arthur on this day. The Chinese Exclusion Act provided an absolute 10 year moratorium on Chinese labor immigration. It was federal law that discriminated and prohibited against an ethnic group from working in the United States. U.S. Congress also prohibited courts, both state and federal, from granting citizenship to any Chinese immigrants as they were ineligible for naturalization. The Chinese were the scapegoats for the declining wages and economic ills on the West Coast because they only composed of only .002% of the nation’s population.
Congress passed the exclusion act to calm white laborers about maintaining white “racial purity.” 10 years later, when the exclusion act expired in 1892, Congress extended it for another 10 years when it passed the Geary Act. Congress made it permanent in 1902. In 1943 during World War II, Congress repealed all of the exclusion acts. This idea, nevertheless, spurred later anti-immigration sentiment and legislation against other “undesirables.”
For more information, please see:
https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/on-this-day/may-6
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=47
https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882
May 3rd, 1948: Shelley v. Kraemer
On this day in history in 1948 the Supreme Court of the U.S ruled in Shelley V Kraumer that the enforcements of the racially restrictive covenants in state court violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1911, a neighborhood in ST. Louis, Missouri enacted a racially restrictive covenant signed by 30 out of 39 residents, designed to prevent African and Asian Americans from living in the area. When the Shelley’s moved in the neighborhood in 1945 they were sued by Louis Kraemer. The Circuit Court declined to enforce the covenant, it was then repealed by the Missouri Supreme Court which reversed the Circuit Courts decision. The Shelley’s appealed to the U.S Supreme Court which finally sought justice.
This case is significant in history because it removed the ability for neighborhoods to longer construct the privatization of segregated housing. This case gave the 14th amendment more power in protecting the people privately
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/334us1
https://study.com/academy/lesson/shelley-v-kraemer-summary-decision-significance.html
May 2nd, 1963: The Birmingham Children's Crusade
On this day in 1963, approximately one thousand teens left school in Birmingham, Alabama to protest and demand the desegregation of public facilities, leaving from Sixth Street Baptist Church to march through the city. During this time period especially, Birmingham was infamously known as one of the most racist cities in the US, with Martin Luther King Jr describing it as a “symbol of hard-core resistance to integration". As the students approached police lines, hundreds of them were arrested and held at local police stations; when the marches continued throughout the following days, the city commissioner ordered law enforcement to use force and halt demonstrations. When images of children being clubbed, pressure-hosed, and arrested appeared in newspapers and television, they sparked public outrage. The US Department of Justice stepped in to try and end the crusade, which led to President John F. Kennedy expressing support for federal civil rights legislation and the eventual passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
For more information, please visit:
https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog/childrens-crusade
https://www.biography.com/news/black-history-birmingham-childrens-crusade-1963-video
https://www.thedailybeast.com/how-the-children-of-birmingham-changed-the-civil-rights-movement
May 1st, 1950: The First Black Author to Win the Pulitzer Prize
On this day in history, Gwendolyn Brooks was the first black author to receive the Pulitzer Prize. Brooks showed much promise from a young age. She wrote her first poem when she was 13 years old and had her first poem published in a newspaper by the age of 17. Her career in poetry took off after that. She eventually published a book called Annie Allen (1949) that won her the Pulitzer Prize. The book was filled with poems that detailed many moments of her life, from early childhood memories, to the realization of adulthood including topics such as racism, killings, and death.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/gwendolyn-brooks
https://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/Today_B_History.html
April 30th, 1871: Camp Grant Massacre
On this day in history, eight Apache men and 110 Apache women and children were brutally murdered in their sleep. 28 additional Apache children were captured to be sold into the child slave trade. The perpetrators committed this atrocity in only 30 minutes. As the bodies were left to sit, a gruesome scene was waiting for the first person to arrive at the camp. Before the sun even rose, the malicious group responsible for this attack were already celebrating their “victory” over their defenseless, sleeping victims. They had decimated the camp, leaving one woman as the sole survivor.
The events leading up to the massacre were hostile. With thousands of people moving from the east, native land, livestock, and water resources were being exhausted. This and a host of other problems, such as diseases (introduced by the white man), make it easy to understand why tensions grew between the two groups. In the early months of 1871, the a group of Apache people had arrived at Camp Grant seeking refugee, food, and peace in exchange for their weapons and sovereignty. With this agreement, the U.S army allowed the group to live, farm, and hunt in designated areas. The immigrants of this area felt the Apache people were raiding their farms and resources and soon the Tucson area became a constant place for violence. There were a handful of attacks on both groups. Local farms were plundered and innocent people were murdered and kidnapped. The two groups were at war, protecting what they felt was theirs. However, the tip of the iceberg came in the pre-dawn hours of April 30th. Many white settlers and Mexicans in their area felt the problem was not going to get solved by the government, so they felt they needed to take matters into their own hands. A group of 48 white men and Mexicans made their way to Camp Grant, the place they had felt all their problems had originated. They quietly approached the camp where a group of Apache people were sleeping and made their attempt at genocide.
This massacre was not praised by federal government officials. On December 10, 1871, 104 suspected members were indicted and brought to a trial in Tucson. The trial was seen as a formality to please federal government officials and eastern sympathizers since the west did not believe the murder of native people was a crime. After five days of trial and a very quick, almost useless, 19-minute jury deliberation, all 104 indicted men were found not guilty and exonerated.
Fights between the Apache people, the white immigrants, and the Mexican people continued for several years. Many have never heard of or have forgotten the Camp Grant Massacre, but the Apache people have not.
Today, the area that once stood Camp Grant is now Central Arizona Community College.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.desertusa.com/desert-people/camp-grant-az.html
https://truewestmagazine.com/the-camp-grant-massacre/
http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/camp_grant.pdf
http://interstice.us/apachestelltheirstory/history-massacre.htm
April 29, 1992: Los Angeles Riots begin Following Acquittal of Police Officers Involved in Rodney King Beating:
The jury in Simi Valley, a suburb of Los Angeles acquitted four white police officers who used excessive force while arresting Rodney King. King was an African American motorist. On March 3, 1991 King was in a high-speed chase through the LA County streets before he surrendered to police. King had been uncooperative and intoxicated during the arrest. The police brutally beat and injured him in an attempt to force him into submission. After King was unable and incapable of resisting, the police continued to assault him. The video, captured by a witness, was sold to a TV station. When this video was released to the press, it sparked a nationwide debate about police brutality.
After the acquittal of the white police officers, the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 began at the intersection of Florence and Normandie in South Central Los Angeles. It left more than 50 people dead, more than 2,000 injured, and cost over $1 billion in damages. Although this started with the brutal and unnecessary beating of one black man, the tensions of racial harassment and discrimination had been bubbling for years and this riot was the most destructive civil disturbance in the United States during the 20th century.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/riots-erupt-in-los-angeles
https://daily.jstor.org/why-rodney-king-video-conviction/
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/rodney-king-trial-verdict-announced
https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/us/los-angeles-riots-fast-facts/index.html
https://www.britannica.com/event/Los-Angeles-Riots-of-1992
April 26th, 1970, Ohio State University Takeover
On this day in history, Ohio State University, much like other college campuses in this era, experienced a series of protests. Ohio State saw an uprising for women’s rights, a push for racial justice, and a call to end the Vietnam War. These issues, combined together and placed on a college campus, sprung mayhem before the administration of Ohio State University. On the heels of a student rally in which hundreds of students walked out of class, a wave of protests lasted for weeks. Nevertheless, the school administration refused to negotiate with them. This led to a strike that placed students face to face with the National Guard. Over the stretch of a few days, the strike was met with consistent police push back. The riots escalated and the group of students shifted to the thousands. It is miraculous that over the course of these protests, no one was fatally hurt. However, on this day, there were several people shot and severely injured in their fight for justice. Ultimately though, the school conceded and gave in to a number of the students' demands.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.thelantern.com/2010/05/1970-protests-erupted-across-ohio-tear-gas-at-osu/
http://plunderbund.com/2014/04/30/the-1970-ohio-state-riots-bigger-and-more-violent-than-kent-state/
April 25th, 1978: Supreme Court rules that pension plans cannot require women to pay more, according to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
On this day in 1978, the Supreme Court heard the case City of Los Angeles Department of Water & Power v. Manhart, which ruled that Federal laws protecting against sex discrimination in employment also prohibit employer-sponsored retirement plans from giving men and women unequal benefits, specifically under Title VII. Insurers had been claiming that because women live longer than men on average, they must either pay more towards their annuity fund or to receive smaller periodic benefits. However, the broad statement that women live longer than men was being applied to individuals, which does not line up with the fact that there is no way to determine any one person's lifespan. Essentially, the court found that employers were not regarding their female employees as unique individuals but rather by the 'average traits' of their sex. Nonetheless, Manhart has not resolved all of the issues related to women and pensions (ie. employer-added contributions, which end up creating a disincentive for hiring female employees because they will cost the employer more), but it did spark discourse around the idea that these forms of discrimination are pervasive and woven deeply into the details of formal/informal interactions.
For more information, please visit:
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/435/702/
https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/07/us/high-court-bans-unequal-pensions-for-the-two-sexes.html
https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2707&context=dlj
April 24th, 1959: Second March for School Integration in Washington
On this day in 1877, the remaining federal troops were pulled out of the south after the Civil War. Louisiana was the last confederate state to have troops in it. The troops were there to uphold new laws and amendments, such as giving former slaves political rights. The hope was that by enforcing these new laws, the southern inhabitants would learn to accept these laws and America could be a desegregated place for all.
After the troops departed, white supremacy came to light once again. African Americans were heavily discriminated against and racial segregation was the new law of the land. Many African Americans were proud to have rights, but when they tried to assert them, they were murdered. Many white plantation owners attacked former slaves trying to deprive their freedom in order to make them a slave again.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/apr/24
April 23, 2015: Loretta Lynch is the First African American Woman to be Appointed as US Attorney General
On this day in 2015, Loretta Lynch made history by becoming the first African American woman to be confirmed as U.S. Attorney General. Her confirmation took months longer than the confirmations of the previous, seven attorney generals. After five long months of battle in the Senate, she was confirmed with the senate voting 56-43, and Vice President Joe Biden saying, “Ladies and gentleman, it is about time." She took office three days later.
During her time as Attorney General, Lynch made issues such as police reform her priority. She conducted investigations into law-enforcement departments across various cities. Most notable were her investigations into Baltimore and Chicago following many high-profile allegations of police brutality, with Baltimore agreeing to implement many changes that were recommended by the Department of Justice. Lynch also focused on civil rights, specifically minority rights. She advocated for the rights of the LGBTQ community. One of her most notable examples was in 2016, when she sued North Carolina over a law that forced transgender people to use public restrooms and locker rooms that matched their biological sex. She claimed this violated their civil rights.
Loretta Lynch only served two years in office, with her leaving office at the end of Obama’s presidency in January 2017. However, it can be said without a doubt that she will forever hold a place in history as the first African- American woman to serve as U.S. Attorney General.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/23/politics/loretta-lynch-attorney-general-vote/index.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Loretta-Lynch
https://www.washingtonpost.com
April 22, 1892: Birthday of Vernon Johns
Vernon Johns was born on April 22, 1892. From 1947-1952, he was a pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. Johns had a close professional and personal relationship with Martin Luther King Jr. who described him as impressively vocal in the face of injustice. King later succeeds Johns as the minister of the Dexter Baptist Church. Johns was an early proponent of civil rights movement in Montgomery, urging his congregation to challenge society's status quo of racial discrimination. His early activism and challenge to the power structure laid the foundation for the socially active ministry of King. On one occasion, Johns paid his bus fare, but refused and demanded his money back when he was directed to sit in the back of the bus. Johns set the stage for the well-known protest on December 1, 1955 by Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott that followed.
In 1915, Vernon Johns graduated from the Boydton Institute and Virginia Theological Seminary and College. Afterwards, he attended the University of Chicago’s Graduate School of Theology and in 1926, Johns became the first African-American to publish his work in the Best Sermons of the Year. He was the president of Lynchburg’s Virginia Theological Seminary and College from 1929 to 1933. After resigning from Dexter Baptist Church, Johns continued as a guest preacher at churches and colleges around the country.
For more information, please see:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/johns-vernon
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/johns-vernon-napoleon-1892-1965/
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott
April 19th, 1969, Willard Straight Hall Takeover:
On this day in 1969, Afro-American Society (AAS) members occupied Willard Straight Hall at Cornell University. Due to its past racial tensions, this urged AAS students to protest against the judicial system and its slow progress in establishing a Black Studies program. During the takeover, it had been parent’s weekend at the University and students began ejecting parents out of their rooms. This prompted some fraternity students to attempt to take the building back, but their attempt was not successful. Many of the students began to arm themselves to properly defend themselves in case of another attack. Then, they were joined by members of the Students for a Democratic Society who formed the protective cordon outside of the building, lasting for 36 hours.
This day in history is significant because it marks a transformative change for school policy in terms of dealing with minorities. Not only were students who protested given the Black Studies program, but it also erupted a nationwide trend in schools as well as development of the Henderson Law.
For more information, please visit:
http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2009/04/campus-takeover-symbolized-era-change
https://www.hoover.org/research/day-cornell-died
April 18th, 1959: Second March for School Integration in Washington
On this day in 1959, A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin organized students in Washington DC for a second march that fought for desegregated schools (following an earlier march in 1958). The march began at the National Mall and headed towards the National Sylvan Theater with around 26,000 people in attendance. The event's main speech was given by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.; most notably, he said, "as I gaze upon this great historic assembly, this unprecedented gathering of young people, I cannot help thinking-that a hundred years from now the historians will be calling this not the 'beat' generation, but the generation of integration". A group of the students went to the White House to demand action from President Eisenhower, who reportedly claimed that he was just as eager to see an America without discrimination as they were. Ultimately, these school desegregation marches paved the way for activism and legislation throughout the 60s.
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/youth-march-integrated-schools
https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/school-desegregation-student-march/
http://www.dcstatehoodyeswecan.org/j/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=320:april-18-1959-youth-march-for-integrated-schools&catid=100:mlk-dc&Itemid=80
April 16, 1862: DC Compensation Emancipation Act Signed into Legislation.
On this day, President Abraham Lincoln signed into legislation abolishing slavery in District of Columbia nearly nine months before he made his famous Emancipation Proclamation. Washington D.C. became the capitol city in 1791 and by 1862 it had become a city of contrast. Being the capitol, the city housed Congress and represented states who were pro-slavery but also abolitionist states. Due to this, D.C. became a center for slavery and the slave trade while at the same time, a hub for anti-slavery activity and home of abolitionists. As a result of this struggle, The DC Compensated Emancipation Act of 1862 was passed by Congress and signed by President Abraham Lincoln. The act ended slavery in Washington DC, freeing nearly 3,100 individuals and compensated those who had legally owned them. The act also offered the newly freed women and men money to emigrate.
Every April 16th, this day is celebrated as DC Emancipation Day to honor the courage and struggle of those who fought to make this reality.
For more information, please visit:
https://emancipation.dc.gov/page/ending-slavery-district-columbia
https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/spring/dcslavery.html
April 15, 1947: Jackie Robinson Breaks Color Barrier in Major League Baseball
Today is Jackie Robinson Day. Robinson was 28 when he became the first African-American player in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the 20th century. He was called up from the minor leagues by the Brooklyn Dodgers. Robinson was a star-athlete playing varsity baseball, basketball, football and track for UCLA. He joined the U.S. Army in 1942, commissioning as a 2nd lieutenant. He was honorably discharged after protesting racial discrimination during his military service.
He first stepped onto the field on April 15, 1947. Robinson faced tremendous racial discrimination during his career on and off the field. In the South, Jim Crow laws prevented Robinson from staying at the same hotels and eating at the same restaurants with the rest of his white teammates. Despite the racial discrimination, he excelled in the MLB. He was named Rookie of the Year in 1947, won the National League MVP (Most Valuable Player) in 1949, played on the National League All-star team from 1949 through 1954, led the Dodgers to 6 National League pennants, and won the World Series in 1955. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 during his first year of eligibility. His number 42 was retired league-wide in 1997. After retiring in 1957, Jackie Robinson became a businessman and civil rights activist. Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier opening a door which, the rest of the African-American players who have played and are playing in the MLB, have walked through.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.biography.com/athlete/jackie-robinson
https://www.mlb.com/news/2019-jackie-robinson-day-events
April 12, 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. Jailed in Birmingham
On this day, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and jailed in Birmingham Alabama for violating an anti-protest injunction. King and many other civil rights leaders went to Birmingham to address the alarming segregation systems that persisted during this time. The city was one of the most segregated in the county with extreme levels of injustice. For this reason, the Birmingham Campaign took off with a series of mass meetings, direct actions and lunch counter sit-ins. Following the campaign, the city government produced a state circuit court injunction against the protests. Although members of the campaign were low on bail funds, King chanced it and participated in the protest leading to his arrest.
While King was held in solitary confinement, he wrote the famous “Letter from Birmingham Jail” addressing what called him to travel to Birmingham and insisting non-violence. He also admonished white moderates and white churches for not doing more to help with the movements quest for equality.
For more information, please visit:
kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/birmingham-campaign
www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1389
April 11th, 1968: Civil Rights Act of 1968 is signed by President Johnson
On this day 51 years ago, the 1968 Civil Rights Act was signed and made effective by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This legislation outlined housing rights that were to be protected by the law and was part of a wave of acts that President Johnson signed (including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965). This additional act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin. It is commonly referred to as the Fair Housing Act as well as the Indian Civil Rights Act, since Title II through VII detailed how many, but not all, of the guarantees of the Bill of Rights are to be applicable within Native American tribes. Most notably, this act provided new federal protections that people are now able to reference and be protected by.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/fair-housing-act
https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/5-facts-about-the-civil-rights-act-of-1968
https://legcounsel.house.gov/Comps/civil68.pdf
April 10th, 1956: Nat Cole King was Attacked while Performing
On this day, Nat Cole King, a famous pianist and vocalist, was giving a performance to an all white audience in Birmingham, Alabama when he was rushed by four white men who assaulted him. The men were apprehended quickly by the police and charged for inciting a riot. Nat proved to be physically okay, but told the white audience of 4,000 that he could not go on with his performance. He still went on to perform later that night for a full black audience.
Nat Cole King had to perform two different concerts due to the Jim Crow laws that were in place. He felt disrespected and hurt after being attacked by a few men from the white audience. He apologized to the crowd but said he was unable to continue.
For more information, please visit:
https://idnc.library.illinois.edu/cgi-bin/illinois?a=d&d=DIL19560411.2.11
http://todayinclh.com/?event=birmingham-racists-attack-nat-king-cole-on-stage
April 9, 1865: General Robert E. Lee Surrenders Ending the American Civil War
On this day in history, General Robert E. Lee surrenders ending the American Civil War. At the Appomattox Court House, Virginia, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his 28,000 troops to Union General Ulysses S. Grant. Forced to abandon the Confederate Capitol of Richmond, blocked from joining surviving Confederate force in North Carolina, and harassed constantly by Union cavalry, failures were mounting daily. Lee had no other option but to send a message to Grant announcing his willingness to surrender.
The American Civil War broke out due to differences in the views of the northern and southern states. The most common being the economic differences. While the North relied on manufacturing and industry, the South’s economy was based on a system of large scale farming that depended on the labor of slaves. The South believe in persevering their traditions and institutions, the biggest among these being slavery. With growing negative sentiment towards the idea of slavery, many southern states feared that the back bone of their economy, slavery, was in danger of being abolished. With the election of Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President as the final straw, several southern state seceded to form the Confederate States of America (with more to come), setting off a chain of events that would lead to the American Civil War.
The Union victory of the American Civil War was paramount to the abolition of slavery with the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery and fully becoming an amendment to the Constitution just months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history
https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-history
https://www.history.com/news/why-the-civil-war-actually-ended-16-months-after-lee-surrendered
April 8, 1864: U.S. Senate Passes 13th Amendment Abolishing Slavery
On April 8, 1864, the Thirteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was passed by the Senate. The 13th Amendment prohibits slavery and involuntary servitude. This constitutional amendment prohibited slavery serving as a crucial step in preventing discrimination against race, however, by no means is the United States a nation free of racism. The Thirteenth Amendment, to this day, holds that slavery and involuntary servitude may be allowed as punishment for a crime.
However, the Thirteenth Amendment allowed opportunities to a new class of freemen. Four years later, on July 9, 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted mandating that citizens of the United States have “equal protection.” This equal protection clause has been vital to a wide variety of landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education. As a third protection of freedom, the Fifteenth Amendment was passed on February 3, 1870 to protect citizens' right to vote regardless of their “race, color or previous condition of servitude.” The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, known as the Reconstruction Amendments, are regarded as the largest expansion of civil rights in the United States.
For more information, please visit:
https://wtop.com/media-galleries/2019/04/today-in-history-april-8/slide/1/
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thirteenth-amendment
http://www.pbs.org/black-culture/explore/emancipation-reconstruction-and-slavery-by-another-name/
https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/jim-crow-laws
https://americanhistory.si.edu/changing-america-emancipation-proclamation-1863-and-march-washington-1963/1863/impact-and-legacy
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv
https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxv
April 5th, 1856: Booker T. Washington is Born
On April 5th, 1856, an influential African American leader was born by the name Booker Taliaferro Washington, more commonly known as Booker T. Washington. Washington was one of the last generation of leaders born into slavery. After the Emancipation Proclamation granted him freedom, he educated himself, learning how to read and write. In his pursuit of a formal education, he enrolled in Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. Washington later went on to become a teacher at his former high school. He was later selected to run a school now called Tuskegee University for African Americans which taught trades and professions. While expanding this institute, Washington was recognized globally for these efforts as well as other services. He became a very influential spokesman for African Americans, appearing on television as well as visiting the white house. His momentous speech was given at the Atlanta Exposition where he shared his controversial “Atlanta Compromise” sentiments. This philosophy received much backlash from some African Americans including W.E.B Dubois suggesting his ideals were racially subservient.
Washington believed that if African Americans were to win the same status as white Americans, they must work hard, obtain financial independence and cultural advancement. He thought it was necessary to accept disenfranchisement and segregation as long as African Americans are granted education and economic opportunities along with justice.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Booker-T-Washington
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/booker-t-washington
April 4th, 1968: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is Assassinated in Memphis
On this day 51 years ago, civil rights activist and movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. was fatally shot while staying at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He had come to Memphis to support the sanitation workers’ strike, which was aimed at fighting for better wages and working conditions. The assassin, James Earl Ray, had escaped a maximum-security prison and was known for being extremely racist, viewing King’s success in attaining civil rights for African American’s a threat to his political and social ideologies.
This deeply tumultuous moment instigated rioting in cities across the United States, for King’s assassination represented both a material and symbolic loss for civil rights activists nationwide. In the days following his death, over 27,000 people were arrested for charges related to arson, looting, and violence in these riots. A few days after his death, Coretta Scott King (King's wife) led a march in Memphis to commemorate both her husband and the sanitation workers that King had supported. King’s words live on and continue to be cited for their power to instill hope and inspire action.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/martin-luther-king-jr-assassination
https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/04/04/day-martin-luther-king-jr-died-voices-movement-episode/ http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/april-2018-assassination-dr-martin-luther-king-jr
April 3, 1968: Martin Luther King Jr. Gives His Last Speech:
On this day in 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his last speech at Bishop Charles Mason Temple in Memphis, Tennessee. The speech was titled “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop”. It was delivered in support of striking sanitation workers in Memphis. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated 20 hours later. His speech signaled that his time was limited. “We’ve got some difficult days ahead… But it really doesn’t matter with me now, because I’ve been to the mountaintop … I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land”.
Many people wonder whether Martin Luther King Jr. had knowledge or intuition about the assassination based off of the words in his last speech. However, there is no evidence that he knew of any information pertaining to the assassination.
For more information, please visit:
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/ive-been-mountaintop
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgVrlx68v-0
April 2, 1933: Reuben Micou, Lynched in Winston County, Mississippi
On April 2, 1933, 65-year-old Reuben Micou was kidnapped from the Winston County, Mississippi jail by a mob of white men with the intent to kill and lynch Micou. The day prior, he had been arrested by police after he had an altercation with a well-known, local white man. Micou’s body was found lynched in a nearby churchyard, riddled with gunshot wounds and hosting injuries suggesting that he had been whipped repeatedly. In this era, Black people bore a heavy burden. The presumption of guilt they carried was unbeatable. Many African Americans, especially throughout the South, were beaten, killed, and lynched due to false allegations or accusations of small, non-serious crimes. Some were not crimes at all, such as arguing or insulting a white person, accidentally touching or complementing a white woman, or, as in this case, defending yourself against a white aggressor.
A week later on July 15, seventeen men were arrested and indicted for participating in the lynching. This was extremely rare during this time. Mobs acted with impunity, rarely facing consequences for their actions including murder. However, despite signs of an actual prosecution, by late July 1933, all seventeen cases were “indefinitely postponed” and all charges were eventually dismissed.
To this day, no one has been tried or convicted for the lynching and murder of Reuben Micou.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/apr/02
https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5506047/reuben_micou_29_jul_1933/
https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5505993/reuben_micou_13_jul_1933/
April 1, 2003: Gratz v. Bollinger, Racial Discrimination in College Admissions
On this day, the United States Supreme Court heard oral arguments for the Gratz v. Bollinger case. The Supreme Court declared the undergraduate admission system at University of Michigan, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LSA), which prioritized the race of an applicant over other factors, was unconstitutional. Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher both applied and they were of Caucasian descent. They were denied admission to the LSA. The Office of Undergraduate Admissions (OAS) procedure considers a number of factors such as high school GPA, standardized test scores, and leadership. It also admitted every qualified student who is an underrepresented minority. Gratz and Hamacher filed a class action lawsuit arguing the admission procedure discriminated against ethnic and racial groups violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (1964).
The Supreme Court delivered the opinion 6-3 holding the OUA’s policies did not provide individual consideration and were not narrowly tailored to meet strict standards. The LSA admissions point system of acceptance was unconstitutional because race should not give points to minorities. The acceptance should be individualized. Justices Steven, Souter and Ginsburg dissented stating race was just one of many factors in the acceptance process. They also stated racial oppression is still visible in society and universities should consider racial information as it shows what the student has accomplished.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2002/02-516?page=31
https://www.cir-usa.org/cases/gratz-v-bollinger-grutter-v-bollinger/
https://ballotpedia.org/Gratz_v._Bollinger
march 2019
March 22, 1972: Equal Rights Amendment passed by Congress
On March 22, 1972, the U.S. Senate passed the Equal Rights Amendment and sent it to the states for ratification. The Amendment aimed to provide legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. It required states to intervene in cases of gender violence, guard against pregnancy and motherhood discrimination, and federally guarantee equal pay. While it was first proposed by the National Woman’s political party in 1923, it was not until the revival of feminism in the late 1960s that sparked its introduction into Congress. In October 1971, it won the required two-thirds vote from the U.S. House of Representatives. In March of that year, it was approved by the Senate and sent to the states for ratification.
While about 30 states ratified what would have been the 27th Amendment within a year, the mid-70s experienced a conservative backlash against feminism that deconstructed support for the Amendment. Ultimately, the Equal Rights Amendment failed to achieve ratification by the required 38, or three-fourths, of the states. Due to the rejection of this Amendment, gender-based equality is not protected by the U.S. Constitution, unless it pertains to the right to vote. There are, however, federal and state laws on the issue.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/equal-rights-amendment-passed-by-congress
https://www.equalrightsamendment.org/history
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/22/us/equal-rights-amendment-what-is-it.html
March 21, 1965: Martin Luther King, Jr. Begins March from Selma to Montgomery
On this day in 1965, 3,200 civil rights demonstrators began a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The march occurred as part of a series of civil-rights protests in 1965 within Alabama. It occurred weeks after marchers were met with deadly violence from local authorities in Selma for pushing voting rights in an incident that became known as “Bloody Sunday”. As a result, this march occurred under the protection of federalized National Guard troops and FBI agents. The demonstrators were able to successfully reach Montgomery, the state capital, within three days.
The historic march on this day, with Martin Luther King, Jr.’s participation, raised awareness of the difficulties faced by black voters and the need for a national Voting Rights Act. Ultimately, the marching led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/selma-to-montgomery-march-begins
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.kmbc.com/article/today-in-history-for-march-21-mlk-begins-march-from-selma-to-montgomery/26894449
March 15, 2019: Terror Attack at New Zealand Mosques
On this day in history, the deadliest terrorist attack in New Zealand history transpired. Forty-nine people were killed, and an estimated fifty others were severely injured. The four individuals arrested for the attacks hail from a far-right ideology and in a manifesto discovered online, the individuals conducted the attack to send a message to the New Zealand government regarding immigration policies and the acceptance of refugees. The overarching message of the attacks was to illustrate that "nowhere in the world is safe" (Manifesto). These fear-inducing hate crimes are sadly not new to the world. Acts of violence continue to persist, and the use of firearms maintain a staple of nearly all terror attacks. One of the perpetrators filmed the horrendous acts of violence and posted the video to their social media account. The FBI is urging all who stumble across the video to report it and to not share the video. Social media truly has become a double-edged sword.
The repercussions of these hate crimes seen in New Zealand today will hold influence on government's throughout the world for the coming future. Acts of hate hold no place in the world. In what can only be described as an act of hate, the importance of love and compassion for one another must not be forgotten in tough times like these. As Joe Biden said, "silence is complicity" (CNN). If you live your life in fear, you are letting the bad guys win.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/15/multiple-fatalities-gunman-christchurch-mosque-shooting
https://www.cnn.com/asia/live-news/new-zealand-christchurch-shooting-intl/index.html
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/15/world/asia/new-zealand-gunman-christchurch.html
March 14, 2015: Largest Fraternity in U.S. Under Scrutiny after Leak of Racist Video
On March 24, 2015, the country’s largest college fraternity, Sigma Alpha Epsilon (SAE), announced that several members of their chapter at the University of Oklahoma would be under review for a racist video leaked earlier that month. The video released depicted members of the Oklahoma SAE chapter chanting a racist song to the tune of “If You’re Happy and You Know It”. Some of the lyrics included, “You can hang him from a tree, but he’ll never sign with me, there will never be a n***** in SAE”. The video quickly spread across the nation, disturbing and infuriating many.
The University suspended the students in the video and initiated an investigation that led to the shut down of the campus’ SAE chapter and housing. Two students were ultimately expelled. While the national SAE chapter condoned the video, later investigations revealed that at least five other chapters knew the racist chant in the video. The video was a reminder of the fraternity’s racist history as an organization founded in the antebellum, slave-holding South.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/08/frat-racist-sae-oklahoma_n_6828212.html
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/14
https://www.kgou.org/post/one-year-later-look-back-university-oklahoma-sae-incident
https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2016/02/12/sigma-alpha-epsilon-5-other-chapters-knew-racist-chant
https://newsok.com/article/5478470/racist-sae-chant-extended-beyond-ou
https://www.chronicle.com/article/U-of-Oklahoma-Official-Hired/244057
March 13, 2015: Racists Texts Uncovered Between San Francisco Police Officers
On March 13, 2015, abhorrent text messages between ten to fifteen San Francisco Police Officers were revealed in court. The text messages, which were allegedly sent in 2011-2012, included numerous racist and homophobic slurs. The messages were discovered during an investigation into a corruption scheme amongst the department. Within the last ten years or so, police misconduct has been at the center of attention. As of 2018, reports indicated that the police officers will receive discipline from the Police Commission after years of legal battles. This case brings into limelight the realities of America's law enforcement system. Individuals in power partaking in despicable crimes, such as exchanging racist and homophobic text messages, exposes the system of its functionalities, but also instills a lack of trust among citizens and law enforcement.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/13
http://www.sfexaminer.com/years-racist-text-messaging-scandal-sf-police-officers-face-discipline/
March 12, 1956: The Southern Manifesto Signed
On this day in 1956, the majority of Southern legislators came together in Washington, D.C. to promote the "Southern Manifesto on Integration." Senator Harry Byrd of Virginia convinced 101 of 128 congressmen from the eleven states that had made up the former Confederacy to sign the document. The document denounced the Supreme Court's 1954 decision on Brown v. Board of Education that had declared racial segregation of public schools unlawful two years earlier. Although the drafters were unable to achieve their main objective of convincing the Court to reverse Brown, they were still able to limit the decision's reach and influence, slowing integration efforts in the North and leading to the preservation of racial segregation in the South through privately funded schools.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/12
https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0311-driver-southern-manifesto-anniversary-20160311-story.html
March 11, 1965: Rev. James Reeb Beaten to Death in Selma, Al.
In March of 1965, during the peaceful voting rights march from Selma to Montgomery, armed police attacked the marchers on Selma's Edmund Pettus Bridge. Following the attack, Dr. Martin Luther King encouraged clergy members to join in on the march. Reverend James Reeb, a 38-year old white Unitarian minister from Boston was one of many white clergymen who joined. In homage to the attack victims, Dr. King led the now 2,500 marchers in a prayer service on Edmund Pettus Bridge on March 9th. That night, four white men who opposed the civil rights march attacked and beat three white clergymen on the bridge including Rev. James Reeb. Reeb was beaten on the head with a club, and he died a couple of days later on March 11, 1965. The men were eventually arrested and indicted for his murder, but they were acquitted by an all-white jury. Reeb's death brought national outrage and attention to civil rights efforts, even moving President Lyndon B. Johnson to call Congress into an emergency session to vote the Voting Rights Act into law.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/news/local/journeytojustice/2016/03/08/history-james-reeb-beaten-death/81474882/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/11
March 8, 1971: Griggs v. Duke Power Company
On this day in history, the US Supreme Court decided in favor of Willie Griggs in Griggs v. Duke Power Company. Griggs filed a class action lawsuit on behalf of himself and fellow African-American employees against his employer Duke Power Company. Duke Power Company required employees to register a minimum score on two standardized tests, in addition to having a high school education. Griggs challenged that this was in violation of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, and disproportionately discriminated against African-Americans. Initially, the Court of Appeals found no discriminatory practices. But, the Supreme Court concluded "that the subtle, illegal, purpose of these requirements was to safeguard Duke's long-standing policy of giving job preferences to its white employees" (Oyez). Ultimately, the Court held that Duke's Power Company attempted to discriminate against African-Americans by instilling unfair requirements. The Supreme Court ruled 8-0 in favor of Griggs.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1970/124
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/journeytojustice/2015/03/03/civil-rights-history-march-9/24308585/
March 7, 1965: “Bloody Sunday”: Civil Rights Protestors Brutally Attacked During Selma-to-Montgomery March
On March 7, 1965, during the peak of the modern civil rights movement, local and state police used tear gas, whips, and clubs to attack hundreds of civil rights protesters beginning a march from Selma, Alabama, to the state capitol in Montgomery. This day became known as “Bloody Sunday”. Around 600 individuals marched on U.S. Route 80, protesting the state denial of voting rights and the murder of activist Jimmie Lee Jackson, who had been shot by police during a peaceful protest just days before. The protesters only got about six blocks away when the police attacked them and drove them back to Selma.
The march was led by John Lewis and Reverend Hosea Williams. They were the first to see the wall of state troopers stretched across Route 80, with deputies and white spectators waving Confederate flags behind them. The marchers kept walking until they stopped about 50 feet away from the authorities. When the protesters did not promptly obey the officers’ order to disband, troopers began to brutally attack and chase the fleeing men, women, and children. Dozens of activists were hospitalized with severe injuries.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/selmas-bloody-sunday-50-years-ago
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/07
https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/al4.htm
March 6, 1857: U.S. Supreme Court Rules Black People Are Not Citizens
On March 6th, 1857, in Dred Scott v. Sandford, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a decision affirming the denial of citizenship and constitutional rights to all black people. Dred Scott, an enslaved black man, attempted to sue for his freedom, but the court's decision held that the fifth amendment did not allow the federal government to deprive a citizen of property, including enslaved people, without due process of law. Scott, who was enslaved by a military physician, thus was recognized as property to his owner, meaning such property could not be legally taken away without due process of the law. The court's decision sent ripple effects throughout the nation as tensions grew between northern and southern territories, ultimately leading to the Civil War four years later. The result of the court's decision illustrated the cold truth; black people were not citizens of the United States, and therefore, did not possess the right to sue in federal court.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/60us393
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/06
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/dred-scott-decision
https://www.sitinmovement.org/history/america-civil-rights-timeline.asp
March 5, 1877: President Hayes Elected Leading to the Compromise of 1877
Rutherford B. Hayes was inaugurated as the 19th president of the United States on March 5, 1877. Hayes, an abolitionist, lost the popular vote to Samuel J. Tilden who supported the Southern states, but the Electoral College vote was still in dispute. This election dispute led to the creation of an electoral commission which voted to award Hayes with the presidency. Although, in exchange for Tilden's concession, Hayes agreed to the Compromise of 1877, which withdrew the remaining federal troops from the South, formally ending Reconstruction. These 3,000 federal troops had remained in the South to enforce federal aid programs that assisted formerly enslaved black people. The end of Reconstruction emboldened white supremacy and led to increased racial discrimination and violence in the South.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/05
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/reconstruction/a/compromise-of-1877
March 4, 1968: FBI Memo Outlines COINTELPRO Program Against Black Nationalists
On this day in 1968, former FBI director J.Edgar Hoover sent a memo to the FBI field offices that laid out the goals of the Counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO). It sought to “expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit and otherwise neutralize” African-American groups and their leaders, including the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Nation of Islam, and the Black Panther Party. The FBI closely surveilled black leaders throughout the 1960s to monitor groups seen as potential threats to order. This program was mostly fueled by racist fears about black nationalism and civil rights activism, and it destroyed the Black Panther Party and shut down beneficial programs in black communities.
For more information, please visit:
http://inthesetimes.com/article/15949/how_the_fbi_conspired_to_destroy_the_black_panther_party
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/federal-bureau-investigation-fbi
March 1, 1960: Alabama Students Join Sit-In Movement
On March 1st of 1960, thousands of Alabama State College students protested the expulsion of sit-in participants by attempting to march on the state capital. Thirty five students were arrested this day and the protest was not allowed to continue. In a wave of sit-ins by students that began in February of 1960, ASC students had joined the movement just four days before March 1st. A group of three-dozen students had entered the cafeteria at the state capitol, asked for service, were denied, and then walked out. Former Governor Patterson labeled the students “race agitators” and demanded the expulsion of these students. The school president expelled them.
At the end of February, half the ASC student body held a prayer service on the steps of the capitol in support of their classmates. The governor was further enraged and demanded more expulsions. Nine more students were expelled. Fellow students were engaged and refused to register for classes until the students were reinstated. March 1st was then when students set out for their march on the capitol, carrying posters condemning Governor Patterson and Jim Crow. The students' bold willingness to confront and challenge the authority of the state placed them on the frontline of the civil rights movement.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1580
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
http://www.ushistory.org/us/54d.asp
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/the-greensboro-sit-in
March 21, 1965: Martin Luther King, Jr. Begins March from Selma to Montgomery
On this day in 1965, 3,200 civil rights demonstrators began a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The march occurred as part of a series of civil-rights protests in 1965 within Alabama. It occurred weeks after marchers were met with deadly violence from local authorities in Selma for pushing voting rights in an incident that became known as “Bloody Sunday”. As a result, this march occurred under the protection of federalized National Guard troops and FBI agents. The demonstrators were able to successfully reach Montgomery, the state capital, within three days.
The historic march on this day, with Martin Luther King, Jr.’s participation, raised awareness of the difficulties faced by black voters and the need for a national Voting Rights Act. Ultimately, the marching led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/selma-to-montgomery-march-begins
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.kmbc.com/article/today-in-history-for-march-21-mlk-begins-march-from-selma-to-montgomery/26894449
On March 22, 1972, the U.S. Senate passed the Equal Rights Amendment and sent it to the states for ratification. The Amendment aimed to provide legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. It required states to intervene in cases of gender violence, guard against pregnancy and motherhood discrimination, and federally guarantee equal pay. While it was first proposed by the National Woman’s political party in 1923, it was not until the revival of feminism in the late 1960s that sparked its introduction into Congress. In October 1971, it won the required two-thirds vote from the U.S. House of Representatives. In March of that year, it was approved by the Senate and sent to the states for ratification.
While about 30 states ratified what would have been the 27th Amendment within a year, the mid-70s experienced a conservative backlash against feminism that deconstructed support for the Amendment. Ultimately, the Equal Rights Amendment failed to achieve ratification by the required 38, or three-fourths, of the states. Due to the rejection of this Amendment, gender-based equality is not protected by the U.S. Constitution, unless it pertains to the right to vote. There are, however, federal and state laws on the issue.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/equal-rights-amendment-passed-by-congress
https://www.equalrightsamendment.org/history
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/22/us/equal-rights-amendment-what-is-it.html
March 21, 1965: Martin Luther King, Jr. Begins March from Selma to Montgomery
On this day in 1965, 3,200 civil rights demonstrators began a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The march occurred as part of a series of civil-rights protests in 1965 within Alabama. It occurred weeks after marchers were met with deadly violence from local authorities in Selma for pushing voting rights in an incident that became known as “Bloody Sunday”. As a result, this march occurred under the protection of federalized National Guard troops and FBI agents. The demonstrators were able to successfully reach Montgomery, the state capital, within three days.
The historic march on this day, with Martin Luther King, Jr.’s participation, raised awareness of the difficulties faced by black voters and the need for a national Voting Rights Act. Ultimately, the marching led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/selma-to-montgomery-march-begins
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.kmbc.com/article/today-in-history-for-march-21-mlk-begins-march-from-selma-to-montgomery/26894449
March 15, 2019: Terror Attack at New Zealand Mosques
On this day in history, the deadliest terrorist attack in New Zealand history transpired. Forty-nine people were killed, and an estimated fifty others were severely injured. The four individuals arrested for the attacks hail from a far-right ideology and in a manifesto discovered online, the individuals conducted the attack to send a message to the New Zealand government regarding immigration policies and the acceptance of refugees. The overarching message of the attacks was to illustrate that "nowhere in the world is safe" (Manifesto). These fear-inducing hate crimes are sadly not new to the world. Acts of violence continue to persist, and the use of firearms maintain a staple of nearly all terror attacks. One of the perpetrators filmed the horrendous acts of violence and posted the video to their social media account. The FBI is urging all who stumble across the video to report it and to not share the video. Social media truly has become a double-edged sword.
The repercussions of these hate crimes seen in New Zealand today will hold influence on government's throughout the world for the coming future. Acts of hate hold no place in the world. In what can only be described as an act of hate, the importance of love and compassion for one another must not be forgotten in tough times like these. As Joe Biden said, "silence is complicity" (CNN). If you live your life in fear, you are letting the bad guys win.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/15/multiple-fatalities-gunman-christchurch-mosque-shooting
https://www.cnn.com/asia/live-news/new-zealand-christchurch-shooting-intl/index.html
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/15/world/asia/new-zealand-gunman-christchurch.html
March 14, 2015: Largest Fraternity in U.S. Under Scrutiny after Leak of Racist Video
On March 24, 2015, the country’s largest college fraternity, Sigma Alpha Epsilon (SAE), announced that several members of their chapter at the University of Oklahoma would be under review for a racist video leaked earlier that month. The video released depicted members of the Oklahoma SAE chapter chanting a racist song to the tune of “If You’re Happy and You Know It”. Some of the lyrics included, “You can hang him from a tree, but he’ll never sign with me, there will never be a n***** in SAE”. The video quickly spread across the nation, disturbing and infuriating many.
The University suspended the students in the video and initiated an investigation that led to the shut down of the campus’ SAE chapter and housing. Two students were ultimately expelled. While the national SAE chapter condoned the video, later investigations revealed that at least five other chapters knew the racist chant in the video. The video was a reminder of the fraternity’s racist history as an organization founded in the antebellum, slave-holding South.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/08/frat-racist-sae-oklahoma_n_6828212.html
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/14
https://www.kgou.org/post/one-year-later-look-back-university-oklahoma-sae-incident
https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2016/02/12/sigma-alpha-epsilon-5-other-chapters-knew-racist-chant
https://newsok.com/article/5478470/racist-sae-chant-extended-beyond-ou
https://www.chronicle.com/article/U-of-Oklahoma-Official-Hired/244057
March 13, 2015: Racists Texts Uncovered Between San Francisco Police Officers
On March 13, 2015, abhorrent text messages between ten to fifteen San Francisco Police Officers were revealed in court. The text messages, which were allegedly sent in 2011-2012, included numerous racist and homophobic slurs. The messages were discovered during an investigation into a corruption scheme amongst the department. Within the last ten years or so, police misconduct has been at the center of attention. As of 2018, reports indicated that the police officers will receive discipline from the Police Commission after years of legal battles. This case brings into limelight the realities of America's law enforcement system. Individuals in power partaking in despicable crimes, such as exchanging racist and homophobic text messages, exposes the system of its functionalities, but also instills a lack of trust among citizens and law enforcement.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/13
http://www.sfexaminer.com/years-racist-text-messaging-scandal-sf-police-officers-face-discipline/
March 12, 1956: The Southern Manifesto Signed
On this day in 1956, the majority of Southern legislators came together in Washington, D.C. to promote the "Southern Manifesto on Integration." Senator Harry Byrd of Virginia convinced 101 of 128 congressmen from the eleven states that had made up the former Confederacy to sign the document. The document denounced the Supreme Court's 1954 decision on Brown v. Board of Education that had declared racial segregation of public schools unlawful two years earlier. Although the drafters were unable to achieve their main objective of convincing the Court to reverse Brown, they were still able to limit the decision's reach and influence, slowing integration efforts in the North and leading to the preservation of racial segregation in the South through privately funded schools.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/12
https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0311-driver-southern-manifesto-anniversary-20160311-story.html
March 11, 1965: Rev. James Reeb Beaten to Death in Selma, Al.
In March of 1965, during the peaceful voting rights march from Selma to Montgomery, armed police attacked the marchers on Selma's Edmund Pettus Bridge. Following the attack, Dr. Martin Luther King encouraged clergy members to join in on the march. Reverend James Reeb, a 38-year old white Unitarian minister from Boston was one of many white clergymen who joined. In homage to the attack victims, Dr. King led the now 2,500 marchers in a prayer service on Edmund Pettus Bridge on March 9th. That night, four white men who opposed the civil rights march attacked and beat three white clergymen on the bridge including Rev. James Reeb. Reeb was beaten on the head with a club, and he died a couple of days later on March 11, 1965. The men were eventually arrested and indicted for his murder, but they were acquitted by an all-white jury. Reeb's death brought national outrage and attention to civil rights efforts, even moving President Lyndon B. Johnson to call Congress into an emergency session to vote the Voting Rights Act into law.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/news/local/journeytojustice/2016/03/08/history-james-reeb-beaten-death/81474882/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/11
March 8, 1971: Griggs v. Duke Power Company
On this day in history, the US Supreme Court decided in favor of Willie Griggs in Griggs v. Duke Power Company. Griggs filed a class action lawsuit on behalf of himself and fellow African-American employees against his employer Duke Power Company. Duke Power Company required employees to register a minimum score on two standardized tests, in addition to having a high school education. Griggs challenged that this was in violation of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, and disproportionately discriminated against African-Americans. Initially, the Court of Appeals found no discriminatory practices. But, the Supreme Court concluded "that the subtle, illegal, purpose of these requirements was to safeguard Duke's long-standing policy of giving job preferences to its white employees" (Oyez). Ultimately, the Court held that Duke's Power Company attempted to discriminate against African-Americans by instilling unfair requirements. The Supreme Court ruled 8-0 in favor of Griggs.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1970/124
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/journeytojustice/2015/03/03/civil-rights-history-march-9/24308585/
March 7, 1965: “Bloody Sunday”: Civil Rights Protestors Brutally Attacked During Selma-to-Montgomery March
On March 7, 1965, during the peak of the modern civil rights movement, local and state police used tear gas, whips, and clubs to attack hundreds of civil rights protesters beginning a march from Selma, Alabama, to the state capitol in Montgomery. This day became known as “Bloody Sunday”. Around 600 individuals marched on U.S. Route 80, protesting the state denial of voting rights and the murder of activist Jimmie Lee Jackson, who had been shot by police during a peaceful protest just days before. The protesters only got about six blocks away when the police attacked them and drove them back to Selma.
The march was led by John Lewis and Reverend Hosea Williams. They were the first to see the wall of state troopers stretched across Route 80, with deputies and white spectators waving Confederate flags behind them. The marchers kept walking until they stopped about 50 feet away from the authorities. When the protesters did not promptly obey the officers’ order to disband, troopers began to brutally attack and chase the fleeing men, women, and children. Dozens of activists were hospitalized with severe injuries.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/news/selmas-bloody-sunday-50-years-ago
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/07
https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/al4.htm
March 6, 1857: U.S. Supreme Court Rules Black People Are Not Citizens
On March 6th, 1857, in Dred Scott v. Sandford, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a decision affirming the denial of citizenship and constitutional rights to all black people. Dred Scott, an enslaved black man, attempted to sue for his freedom, but the court's decision held that the fifth amendment did not allow the federal government to deprive a citizen of property, including enslaved people, without due process of law. Scott, who was enslaved by a military physician, thus was recognized as property to his owner, meaning such property could not be legally taken away without due process of the law. The court's decision sent ripple effects throughout the nation as tensions grew between northern and southern territories, ultimately leading to the Civil War four years later. The result of the court's decision illustrated the cold truth; black people were not citizens of the United States, and therefore, did not possess the right to sue in federal court.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/60us393
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/06
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/dred-scott-decision
https://www.sitinmovement.org/history/america-civil-rights-timeline.asp
March 5, 1877: President Hayes Elected Leading to the Compromise of 1877
Rutherford B. Hayes was inaugurated as the 19th president of the United States on March 5, 1877. Hayes, an abolitionist, lost the popular vote to Samuel J. Tilden who supported the Southern states, but the Electoral College vote was still in dispute. This election dispute led to the creation of an electoral commission which voted to award Hayes with the presidency. Although, in exchange for Tilden's concession, Hayes agreed to the Compromise of 1877, which withdrew the remaining federal troops from the South, formally ending Reconstruction. These 3,000 federal troops had remained in the South to enforce federal aid programs that assisted formerly enslaved black people. The end of Reconstruction emboldened white supremacy and led to increased racial discrimination and violence in the South.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/mar/05
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/reconstruction/a/compromise-of-1877
March 4, 1968: FBI Memo Outlines COINTELPRO Program Against Black Nationalists
On this day in 1968, former FBI director J.Edgar Hoover sent a memo to the FBI field offices that laid out the goals of the Counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO). It sought to “expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit and otherwise neutralize” African-American groups and their leaders, including the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Nation of Islam, and the Black Panther Party. The FBI closely surveilled black leaders throughout the 1960s to monitor groups seen as potential threats to order. This program was mostly fueled by racist fears about black nationalism and civil rights activism, and it destroyed the Black Panther Party and shut down beneficial programs in black communities.
For more information, please visit:
http://inthesetimes.com/article/15949/how_the_fbi_conspired_to_destroy_the_black_panther_party
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/federal-bureau-investigation-fbi
March 1, 1960: Alabama Students Join Sit-In Movement
On March 1st of 1960, thousands of Alabama State College students protested the expulsion of sit-in participants by attempting to march on the state capital. Thirty five students were arrested this day and the protest was not allowed to continue. In a wave of sit-ins by students that began in February of 1960, ASC students had joined the movement just four days before March 1st. A group of three-dozen students had entered the cafeteria at the state capitol, asked for service, were denied, and then walked out. Former Governor Patterson labeled the students “race agitators” and demanded the expulsion of these students. The school president expelled them.
At the end of February, half the ASC student body held a prayer service on the steps of the capitol in support of their classmates. The governor was further enraged and demanded more expulsions. Nine more students were expelled. Fellow students were engaged and refused to register for classes until the students were reinstated. March 1st was then when students set out for their march on the capitol, carrying posters condemning Governor Patterson and Jim Crow. The students' bold willingness to confront and challenge the authority of the state placed them on the frontline of the civil rights movement.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1580
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
http://www.ushistory.org/us/54d.asp
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/the-greensboro-sit-in
March 21, 1965: Martin Luther King, Jr. Begins March from Selma to Montgomery
On this day in 1965, 3,200 civil rights demonstrators began a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The march occurred as part of a series of civil-rights protests in 1965 within Alabama. It occurred weeks after marchers were met with deadly violence from local authorities in Selma for pushing voting rights in an incident that became known as “Bloody Sunday”. As a result, this march occurred under the protection of federalized National Guard troops and FBI agents. The demonstrators were able to successfully reach Montgomery, the state capital, within three days.
The historic march on this day, with Martin Luther King, Jr.’s participation, raised awareness of the difficulties faced by black voters and the need for a national Voting Rights Act. Ultimately, the marching led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act months later.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/selma-to-montgomery-march-begins
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.kmbc.com/article/today-in-history-for-march-21-mlk-begins-march-from-selma-to-montgomery/26894449
FEbruary 2019
February 28, 1942: White Mobs Riot Against Racial Integration in Detroit
During World War II, the city of Detroit made promises of higher wages to communities in the South in an effort to fill the new war factories. As the city stood as a hub for economic activity, blacks moved in fleeing racial violence and inequality from the South in a wave known as the Great Migration. However, the new black residents soon realized Detroit was just as segregated as the South and that there was a housing scarcity problem in the city. Black families were banned from most public housing, were forced to pay higher rents, and also faced hostility from the Klu Klux KLan, police, and groups of white workers.
In June 1941, a temporary solution for the housing issue was approved. Detroit policymakers approved plans to build the Sojourner Truth Homes, a public housing project for the black population, in a white neighborhood. On February 28, 1942, protests from local white people ensued as black families were authorized to begin moving in that day. Only a few black families aimed to try braving the mobs and some were struck with rocks. Police responded by halting the move-ins by the black families and arrested more than 200 black people. They only arrested three white individuals.
For more information, please visit:
https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/5963
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.loc.gov/resource/fsa.8d45111/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/28
February 27, 1922: U.S. Supreme Court Upholds the 19th Amendment as Constitutional
February 27, 1922 marked a monumental day for not only women in the United States, but for the political justice movement beginning to take form in the United States. The 19th Amendment stated that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex." After decades of protests, meetings, and petitions by women suffragists and their supporters, the eight members of the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared the 19th Amendment constitutional. Women's suffrage was finally achieved, and more importantly, women stood on equal political grounds to men in the United States. Nearly 100 years later, and we continue to see women progress farther and farther into the political arena. Many firsts have been accomplished; first female Presidential candidate for a majority party, first female Justice of the US Supreme Court, first female Attorney General, etc. Women continue to delve deeper into legal and political arenas, proving the naysayers wrong each time.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/supreme-court-defends-womens-voting-rights
February 26, 2012: Trayvon Martin Fatally Shot
On this day in 2012, 17-year old Trayvon Martin was fatally shot by George Zimmerman in Samford Florida. Zimmerman was a neighborhood watch captain who saw Trayvon and decided to report the black youth wearing a hooded sweatshirt as a “suspicious person.” Zimmerman did not follow the dispatcher’s instructions and instead followed Trayvon, eventually approaching and shooting him to death. Trayvon was unarmed and was only carrying iced tea and candy. Initially, Zimmerman was not charged due to Florida’s “Stand Your Ground Law” and his claim of self-defense. Heartbroken and outraged, Trayvon’s parents worked with advocates to spread the word about the murder of their son. A national movement was formed in response, as Trayvon represented the peril of being a black man in the United States. On March 21, 2012, New York City held the “Million Hoodie March” where hundreds protested to call for criminal charges against Zimmerman. In April of 2012, George Zimmerman was indicted for the second-degree murder of Trayvon Martin, but he was later acquitted in July of 2013. Trayvon Martin has become a symbol of the Black Lives Matter movement and the criminal justice system's targeting of African American communities.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/26
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/florida-teen-trayvon-martin-is-shot-and-killed
February 25, 1870: Hirman R. Revels Becomes the First Black Representative in Congress
On this day in 1870, Hirman R. Revels made history when he was sworn in as the first African American to serve in the United States Senate. Revels was born in North Carolina and began his career as a minister. During the Civil War, he helped establish African American regiments and schools for freed slaves. After the war, he moved to Mississippi, and his reputation as a strong leader led to his nomination and successful election to the U.S. Senate. Yet, before being elected, Revels faced racist attempts by members of the legislature to block him from serving in Congress. After he served in the Senate for a year, he went on to become the president of Alcorn College in Mississippi.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/First_African_American_Senator.htm
https://thewright.org/index.php/explore/educational-resources/2013-11-28-11-27-37/entry/today-in-black-history-2252015
February 22, 1832: First All Female, All Black Anti-Slavery Society Organized
On this day in 1832, the first all female, all black anti-slavery group formed in Salem, Massachusetts. While the group was initially named The Colored Female Religious and Moral Society of Salem, it changed its name to the Female Anti-Slavery Society of Salem once entering the political realm. Similar to other antislavery societies, the organization addressed numerous issues important to free blacks in addition to campaigning against slavery.
The group supported secular and Sabbath schools for free blacks, assisted newly freed or runaway slaves, and opposed racial segregation and discrimination in the northern free states. They also raised money to support abolitionist publication, were anti-colonization, and their goals were overall fairly identical to later civil rights leaders - the right to vote, an end to oppressive racism, and fair treatment under the law. The group operated from 1832 to 1866.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.congregationallibrary.org/nehh/series3/SFASS
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/female-anti-slavery-society-salem-massachusetts-1832-1866/
http://projects.leadr.msu.edu/youngamerica/exhibits/show/womenabolitionists/womenledorgs
February 21, 1965: Malcolm X Assassinated in Harlem
On this day in 1965, Malcolm X was murdered in New York City while speaking at a rally of his Organization of Afro-American Unity. As one of the most controversial black leaders of the 1960s, his rhetoric and passion inspired the Black Panther Party and other militant black organizations. An African American nationalist and religious leader of Islam, Malcolm’s developed and outspoken philosophy steadily gained followers. While his philosophy was often characterized as radical, his more moderate philosophy became increasingly influential in the civil rights movement, especially among the leads of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee.
Malcolm’s message often came at odds with other civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., who advocated for nonviolent strategies such as civil disobedience and boycotting to achieve integration. Instead, Malcolm was a strong advocate for self-defense and the liberation of African Americans by “any means necessary”. His message primarily honed in on the exploitation, disenfranchisement, and the economic oppression of American blacks. Many of the ideas he articulated, including race pride, became ideologically foundational for the Black Power movement that emerged in the 1960s and ‘70s. After his assassination, the publication of The Autobiography of Malcolm X¨(1965) made him an ideological hero, especially among black youth.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/malcolm-x-assassinated
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malcolm-X
Feb 20, 1956: Warrants Issued in Montgomery Bus Boycott Case
On Feb 20, 1956, 89 arrest warrants were issued for African-American protesters in what is now known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott case. Amongst these protesters were Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy. The decision to issue arrest warrants stemmed from a thirty-four year old anti boycott statute. As times intensified, protesters became more committed, but also more fearful of death. Protesters understood their lives were on the line, but knew the cause they were fighting for was well worth it. Nearly all charges were dropped immediately, but King was indicted. The judge disregarded the claims by King's Attorney, Fred Gray, who argued the statute was unconstitutional and there was just cause for a protest. Eventually, the charges against King were dismissed and the trial fell through.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
February 19, 1942: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, Ordering the Internment of Japanese Americans
Prejudice against Japanese Americans intensified after Japanese forces bombed Pearl Harbor in December of 1941. In response, on February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt officially authorized the internment of Japanese Americans by signing Executive Order 9066. The Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation had emphasized that people of Japanese descent did not pose a security threat, yet this order authorized military leaders to detain and place Japanese Americans in camps without due process. In March of 1942, over 120,000 people with Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast were told they had 7 days to report to concentration camps. These individuals were required to leave their homes, jobs, and possessions and live in camps with inhumane conditions. 70,000 of these individuals were American citizens.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/19
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154
February 18, 1965: Jimmie Lee Jackson, a Young African-American Demonstrator, Fatally Shot; MLK Plans Selma March in Response
On this day in history in 1965, while crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Marion, Alabama, a group of peaceful civil rights demonstrators were attacked by white segregationists. Amidst the violence, an Alabama state trooper fatally shot Jimmie Lee Jackson, a young African-American demonstrator. News of his death spread, causing national outrage. In response, Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC planned a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery in his memory. On March 7, 1965, about 600 people began the 54-mile march from Selma to Montgomery. The ensuing events were key to the congressional response and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/03/07/this-day-in-politics-march-7-1965-437394
February 15, 1851: Abolitionists Free Shadrach Minkins, a Fugitive Enslaved Man
As the first runaway slave to be arrested in New England under the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, Shadrach Minkins was liberated by abolitionists on February 15 of 1851. Born into slavery in Virginia, Minkins lived the first thirty years of his life in his hometown. In May of 1850, however, he decided to escape his enslaved life and go to Boston where he became a waiter. While Boston had been considered a refuge for runaways under the protection of both white and black abolitionists, the Fugitive Slave Act, part of the Compromise of 1850, compromised Boston’s reputation as a safe haven. The act allowed slave owners, with proof of ownership, to legally reclaim runaways throughout the United States.
Minkins was arrested under this law and taken to trial. After the judge refused Minkins’ writ of habeas corpus, a group of black abolitionists broke into the Boston Courthouse and transported Minkins to Canada where he lived a free man for the remainder of his life. The liberation of Minkins catalyzed one of the most dramatic episodes of rebellion and legal wrangling in the United States before the Civil War. He became an icon of the antislavery movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/minkins-shadrach-1814-1875/
http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674802995
February 14, 2018: One Year Since the Parkland Shooting
Exactly a year ago today, 14 students were shot and murdered at their high school in Parkland, Florida. A total of 17 people were killed at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School that day. The teen gunman who confessed on video to the shooting is still in the trial process a year later, facing a charge of 17 counts of premeditated murder. As another school shooting in a line of tragic moments in U.S. history, this day once again sparked massive outrage and controversy over gun laws, inspiring marches, new laws, and overall calls for tighter gun control in the United States.
Legally, the right to own a gun is constitutionally protected under the 2nd Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Despite this, however, protesters have continued advocating for gun-law reform in a wave of violence sponsored by guns. Parkland student survivors themselves have emerged as a rare voice in the fight over guns, fighting for more regulation with tones of both confidence and innocence. They have traveled to Tallahassee, Florida, and Washington D.C. telling their stories and advocating under the #NeverAgain movement that they launched. In the past year, legislators from both the Democratic and Conservative party enacted 67 new gun safety laws as a response to demands from their constituents. However, support for tighter gun laws has waned in the past year amongst Americans. While 71 percent of Americans said gun laws should be tightened in a poll conducted soon after the Parkland shooting, only 51 percent of Americans support stricter gun laws now.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/us/parkland-obituaries-students.html
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/us/parkland-anniversary-marjory-stoneman-douglas.html
https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/police-respond-shooting-parkland-florida-high-school-n848101
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RiI6AiW96Q
https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/2/14/18224808/parkland-anniversary-gun-control-laws-poll
February 13, 1960: Beginning of Sit-In Campaigns
On this day in history, what became known as the sit-in movement commenced. Hundreds of volunteers - comprised of mainly black college students - in Nashville, Tennessee met to design a series of sit-ins in hopes of challenging racial segregation at lunch counters. The first sit-in totaled around 500 students filing into several downtown stores, and requesting service at well-known segregated establishments. The white store owners refused service to the black college students, and requested that the police arrest them. The police warned the students, but the demonstrator's continued. The next morning, hundreds of the demonstrators began sitting-in at segregated stores again. This time, white teenagers reverted to violence to counter the silent protest (yelling racial epithets, hurling physical objects, etc.). After the police intervened and arrested nearly 80 demonstrators, the arrested activists were given a choice of a monetary fine or jail time.
One of the students, Diane Nash, was among the majority who chose jail time. Her justification rings loud and proud back then, but today her words speak just as strong. Nash informed the judge that paying the fine "would be contributing to and supporting the injustice and immoral practices that have been performed in the arrest and conviction of the defendants" (EJI 1). Nash's speech influenced nearly all of the other defendants to choose jail time instead of paying the monetary fine. Ultimately, after watching dozens of black students being transported to jail, the mayor decided to release the students and created a biracial committee in hopes of desegregating downtown shops. After the success of the Nashville sit-ins, sit-in campaigns commenced throughout numerous other Southern cities.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/13
February 8, 1986: Orangeburg Massacre
On this day in history, what become known as the Orangeburg Massacre, transpired in South Carolina. Students at South Carolina State University were protesting the fact that many public places in the South were still segregating whites and blacks, even though the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made segregation illegal. Tensions began to rise at the protest as the number of students increased to a few hundred by day 3. Thus prompting the National Guard to be called in hoping to quell any acts of violence. However, on Feb 8th, 1968, state troopers opened fire on the student protests, killing three students (Samuel Ephesians Hammond Jr., Delano Herman Middleton, and Henry Ezekial Smith), and wounding nearly fifty more.
After the shooting, Martin Luther King Jr. demanded trial and incarceration for the officers involved. Nine officers charged in the shooting were acquitted. Justice was never served for the three innocent lives taken that day.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
February 7, 1904: Black Man, Luther Holbert, and Unidentified Black Woman Lynched in Mississippi
On February 7th of 1904, a crowd of white people watched and cheered as Luther Holbert and an unidentified black woman were tortured and killed in Doddsville, Mississippi. While some reports attempted to identify the woman as Mr. Holbert’s wife, later research suggested she was not, which is why her identity sadly remains unknown. Mr. Holbert had been accused of shooting and killing a white landowner from a wealthy local family that owned a plantation where many of the area’s black laborers worked. After the shooting, the landowner’s two brothers captured Mr. Holbert and the unidentified black woman.
While the actual circumstances around the white landowner’s death are unknown, the painful death experienced by Mr. Holbert and that woman are not. According to an eyewitness report at the time, both victims were tied to trees while their funeral pyres were prepared. They were brutally tortured up until the moment they were murdered. The atmosphere of this horrific incident was described as “festive”, where the audience of over 600 white spectators “enjoyed deviled eggs, lemonade, and whiskey.”
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/07
Feb 6, 1956: University of Alabama Suspends the First African American from Attending Class:
Feb 6, 1956 marked the day the University of Alabama suspended Autherine Lucy, the first African American to attend the public southern university. Just three days into her college experience, Lucy was told by the university that her suspension was "for her own safety". The university's suspension resulted in days of rioting following the U.S. Supreme Court's orders to admit her into the university. Lucy's expulsion from the university resulted in the resignation of the university's president Oliver Carmichael. Twenty-four years later, the university overturned her expulsion, and Lucy was finally able to earn her master's degree.
Throughout her lifetime, Autherine Lucy could be found advocating for civil rights and educating young people on the importance of civil liberties and equal treatment for all. Lucy, who is still educating the younger generations on civil rights, will always be remembered for her bravery and strength in breaking down racial barriers in a time when many doubted and resisted change.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/journeytojustice/2015/02/03/civil-rights-history-february-9/22794937/
February 5, 1995: Trayvon Martin Is Born
On this day in 1995, Trayvon Martin was born in Miami Florida. Martin loved football, he aspired to fly or repair airplanes, and he hoped to attend college at the University of Miami or Florida A&M University. On the night of February 26, 2012, 17-year old Martin was returning home from a store in Sanford, Florida when he was followed and eventually shot and killed by neighborhood watchman George Zimmerman. Martin’s death sparked national discourse about racial profiling and police brutality, and in March of 2012, Martin’s parents created the Trayvon Martin Foundation to support victims of gun violence. Zimmerman claimed self-defense under Florida’s Stand Your Ground law, but about six weeks later he was arrested and tried for the second-degree murder of Martin. In July 2013, Zimmerman was acquitted by a jury. The Black Lives Matter movement rose in response to Zimmerman’s acquittal and became a national force against violence and systematic racism towards black people. Trayvon Martin would have been 24-years old today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/07/31/631897758/a-look-back-at-trayvon-martins-death-and-the-movement-it-inspired
https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/03/what-happened-trayvon-martin-explained/
February 4, 1913: Civil Rights Activist Rosa Parks Is Born
Mrs. Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama. Mrs. Parks attended high school in Montgomery, Alabama, but she had to drop out to care for her ailing grandmother. In 1932, she married Raymond Parks, an activist who defended the Scottsboro Boys and a member of the NAACP. Rosa Parks became very active in the civil rights movement when she joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP in 1943, and she was elected as secretary and later became a youth leader there. On December 1, 1955, Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a segregated city bus. This famous incident created the momentum for the Montgomery bus boycott, and Parks came to be recognized as the “mother of the modern civil rights movement.”
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
http://www.rosaparks.org/biography/
February 1, 1790: First Session of the U.S. Supreme Court
For the very first time, the U.S. Supreme Court met on February 1st of 1790. The Court had been established just the previous year by Article Three of the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution granted the Court ultimate jurisdiction over all laws, especially those in which their constitutionality was at issue. In order to establish the structure of the court, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was passed by Congress and signed by President George Washington, establishing the Court as a tribunal made up of six justices who were to serve until death or retirement.
Since the Judiciary Act had also created the “inferior” courts which just began their operations, there were no appeals to be heard the Court. Instead, they spent their first year without a case focusing on approving bar appointments and organizing the court system. It took two years for the justices to hear their first argument.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-were-the-first-six-supreme-court-justices
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-session-of-the-u-s-supreme-court
January 31,1865: 13th Amendment Passed by Congress
On January 31, 1864, the U.S. Congress passed the 13th Amendment, which was eventually ratified in December of the same year. Section 1 of the amendment outlawed chattel slavery and involuntary servitude (except as punishment for a crime), while Section 2 gave the U.S. Congress power to enforce this amendment via appropriate legislation. The amendment was adopted post-American Civil War in order to abolish slavery during Reconstruction.
However, Reconstruction failed in that Southern states began to implement Jim Crow segregation and economic subjugation policies to continue the oppression of black populations with the U.S. While the 13th Amendment along with the 14th and 15th Amendments sought to establish equality for black Americans, the struggle to achieve full equality and guarantee the civil rights of all Americans would continue into the 20th and 21st Century.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thirteenth-amendment
https://www.historynet.com/thirteenth-amendment
Jan 30, 1956: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's Home Bombed in Montgomery, Alabama
In 1956, one month after the beginning of the Montgomery bus boycott, the home of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was bombed. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr's wife Coretta, seven-week-old daughter Yolanda, and a neighbor were home at the time, fortunately, nobody was injured. During the bombing, Dr. King was delivering a speech at a large meeting, and once notified, arrived swiftly back to his home in Montgomery, Alabama, to around 300 African Americans gathered outside, ready to defend Dr. King with weapons.
King is famously quoted by responding to the bombing and presence of those seeking to protect him, "If you have weapons, take them home; if you do not have them, please do not seek them. We cannot solve this problem through violence. We must meet violence with nonviolence" (A History of Racial Injustice). King's advocacy for nonviolence continues to be a prominent strategy for civil rights activists today.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jan/30
January 29, 1883: Supreme Court Confirms Miscegenation Laws in Alabama
In 1881, a couple in Clarke County, Alabama was convicted of violating a miscegenation law that outlawed interracial relationships and marriages. The case went on to the Alabama Supreme Court, which held that "fornication" between races was inherently "evil." In Pace v. Alabama, the Court upheld the conviction on the grounds that the law did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because it applied to both races equally. This case went on to be used as precedent in anti-miscegenation laws across the South until 1967, when Loving v. Virginia was overturned by the Supreme Court.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/106/583
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-29/
January 28, 1934: Black Man Found Innocent in Tampa, Florida Rape Charge; Kidnapped and Killed a Few Days Later
In Tampa, Florida a 40-year old black man named Robert Johnson was arrested after being accused of raping a white woman on January 28, 1934. The charges were dropped after the police conducted an investigation, but Johnson was transferred to county jail after the police continued to hold him on theft charges. The transfer was strangely carried out in the middle of the night by Deputy Constable Thomas Grave, and their car was stopped by a mob of white men who disarmed Grave and kidnapped Johnson. The mob carried Johnson to a forested area where a crowd had gathered for a lynching, and he was shot several times and killed. The Governor later called an investigation of the lynching, but no charges were produced and the mob was never prosecuted.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-28/
Jan 25, 1890: The Birth of the National Afro-American League
On this day in history, journalist Timothy Thomas Fortune co-founded the National Afro-American League (AAL) in Chicago. The AAL challenged existing misconceptions about race and equality, while also speaking out against lynching, mob violence, and discrimination of all forms. The majority of the public did not appreciate or listen to the AAL. However, even though the AAL disbanded after only four years, the AAL served as an example of what can be accomplished in the fight against civil injustice, as well as serving as a springboard for other national Negro Organizations for the future.
Speaking out against injustice is only the first step in securing equal rights for all. Voices must be heard. The AAL represented those who couldn't speak for their rights. Today, the same dilemma persists. More and more individuals must speak out against injustice, if not, injustice will continue to persevere.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
January 24, 1993: Thurgood Marshall Passed Away
On January 24, 1993, attorney and first African-American Supreme Court Justice, Thurgood Marshall passed away. As a lawyer, Marshall argued and won numerous civil rights issue cases. These cases include Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), in which the Supreme Court struck down the legality of racially restrictive covenants, and Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which held that racial segregation in public education is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause. Brown v. Board was the landmark case that demolished the legal basis for segregation across America.
After years of successful cases brought to the Supreme Court challenging state-sponsored discrimination, Marshall was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 1961. In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson appointed him to the U.S. Supreme Court. Until his retirement in 1991, Marshall continued to push for the protection of rights of all citizens. His legacy ultimately earned him the title “Mr. Civil Rights”.
For more information, please visit:
thurgoodmarshall.com
https://www.naacpldf.org/about-us/history/thurgood-marshall/
https://www.oyez.org/justices/thurgood_marshall
https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/justice-thurgood-marshall-profile-brown-v-board
January 23, 1964: 24th Amendment Abolishes Voting Poll Taxes
January 23rd, 1964 marked a memorable date in U.S. political history. On this day, the 24th Amendment was created, which abolished the poll tax. The poll tax had originally been instituted in 11 southern states after reconstruction to make it difficult for poor blacks to vote. The 24th Amendment acted as a stepping stone in the country's political history in terms of helping marginalized individuals gain greater rights to access and participate in America's political system.
In order to have all voices heard, no restrictions or obstacles may be in place to prevent certain voices from being recognized. In today's political climate, we continue to see obstacles for marginalized groups to access their voting rights. Just a few months ago, the 2018 Georgia governor election saw voting polls mysteriously shut down in predominantly African-American neighborhoods.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxiv
January 22, 1883: The Supreme Court Dismantles Law Against Terrorism by KKK
In Crockett County, Tennessee in 1876 a mob of nineteen men stormed the local jail and beat up four African American men: Robert Smith, William Overton, George Wells, Jr., and P.M. Wells, killing one of the men. The mob had been led by Sheriff R. G. Harris, and he and the other perpetrators were charged under the Force Act of 1871, also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1871. The Act had been passed by Congress to protect black Americans from racial violence by making it a federal crime for terrorist individuals and groups such as the Ku Klux Klan to use intimidation practices to interfere with individuals’ rights to equal protection under the law. On January 22, 1883, in the case United States v. Harris, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Force Act was unconstitutional because the Fourteenth Amendment could only allow Congress to penalize state action that violated the Amendment, not the acts of individuals.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-22/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/106us629
January 21, 2019: Martin Luther King Jr. Day
In 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill declaring Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday to be observed on the third Monday of January to celebrate King’s birthday and civil rights achievements. This year, it fell on January 21, and thousands around the country turned out to march in his honor and take part in fairs and workshops held by community activists. Martin Luther King Jr. is remembered as one of the most prominent leaders of the civil rights movement, and in 1955, he organized the first protest of the movement, the Montgomery bus boycott. King was a pastor and compelling speaker who moved the country with his message of non-violence and using civil disobedience to dismantle racial segregation.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mlk-federal-holiday-declared
https://www.seattlepi.com/seattlenews/article/Thousands-turnout-for-annual-MLK-Jr-Day-March-13549986.php
January 17, 1977: First Person Executed in U.S. Since Reinstatement of Death Penalty
Gary Gilmore, a career criminal, was sentenced for execution on October 7th of 1976 and then shot to death by a firing squad in Utah on January 17th of the next year. After a several year ban on the death penalty, Gilmore was the first person to be executed by the state since the end of the ban.
In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty qualified as "cruel and unusual punishment", violating the eight Amendment to the Constitution. This was primarily because states used capital punishment in an "arbitrary and capricious way", especially in regard to race. However, in 1976, the court ended the constitutional ban on capital punishment as long as states created specific guidelines for imposing death sentences. Gilmore's death however, did not immediately trigger an immediate wave of executions. Only five more criminals by the end of 1982 had been put to death. It was in later years that the use of capital punishment increased.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gary-Gilmore
January 16, 1965: CORE Civil Rights Workers
On Jan 16, 1965, eighteen people were arrested in Mississippi for the murder of three civil rights workers. Those three individuals were Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, both white New Yorkers, and James Chaney, a Mississippi African American man. All three had joined CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) in 1963. The objective of their roles in CORE were to help organize civil rights efforts in the deeply segregated state of Mississippi. All eighteen of the individuals involved in the three murders were part of the Ku Klux Klan. All three men were shot to death because of their involvement in civil rights matters.
In order to give the federal government jurisdiction in the case, all suspects were charged with civil rights violations. An all-white jury reached a mixed verdict; nine acquitted, two undecided, and seven guilty. The result was perceived as a major civil rights victory, as no one previously had accomplished a conviction for actions taken against a civil rights worker.
With the MLK Holiday approaching, one should take a moment and reflect on how the United States remains divided and in what ways a difference can be made. Civil rights are vital to a successful and equal society, and opportunities exist everywhere to challenge situations that are in need of improvement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/slain-civil-rights-workers-found
January 15, 1991: The Supreme Court Approves Oklahoma City School Board to Dissolve Integration Order
In 1972, after a federal court order required Oklahoma City schools to establish a busing program for desegregation in compliance with Brown v. Board, the school board successfully had the order removed when the federal court determined that integration had been successful. In 1984, the Board of Education of Oklahoma City Schools created a plan to re-segregate Oklahoma City schools, but many parents of African American students fought against this plan and brought it to court. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit listened in 1989 and reinstated the original 1972 order, but in response, the school board appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. On January 15, 1991, the Supreme Court announced its 5-3 decision that if the Board showed it was following the Equal Protection Clause and unlikely to return to its former ways, then the district court could lift the order. Even though the Oklahoma City schools had been re-segregating under their new plan, the lower court’s assessment of the situation still validated that new plan.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-15/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1990/89-1080
January 14, 1942: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lays the Groundwork for the Internment of Japanese-Americans
On January 14, 1942, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt issued Proclamation 2537, which was the precursor to Executive Order 9066 calling for the internment of Japanese-Americans. Proclamation 2537 ordered “aliens” from Germany, Italy, and Japan to register with the U.S. Department of Justice and obtain a Certificate of Identification for Aliens of Enemy Nationality. This gave the government permission to arrest people with this status and place them into detention for trespassing areas categorized as “restricted.” Only a month later, Roosevelt gave in and signed Executive Order 9066, which fully permitted the government to physically force all Japanese Americans into internment camps.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/roosevelt-ushers-in-japanese-american-internment
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jan14/initial-idea-japanese-american-internment/
January 11, 1957: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference began
Non-violent activists gathered in Atlanta, Georgia to protest segregation across the South. Led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the group of about 60 ministers and others formed a new organization that soon became known as one of the leading civil rights organizations in the United States. This organization is the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The SCLC took part in numerous campaigns in hopes of combating racial injustice. Eventually, the organization's efforts reached a peak; all the campaigning and protesting finally helped end the Jim Crow Laws in 1965.
Martin Luther King Jr. stood for justice, peace, and equality. Until his death in 2018, King's impact reached far beyond just the leader of the SCLC. MLK's teachings hold a substantial place in American society today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
January 9, 1918: Women's right to vote is publicly endorsed by President Woodrow Wilson
On January 9, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson publicly declared his advocacy for a women’s right to vote. Wilson, who previously refused to take a position on the issue, finally announced his support for women’s suffrage. While some see President Wilson’s remarks as an attempt to solely garner more votes for the upcoming congressional elections, others mark this day as a win for women, for social justice, and for gender equality in the United States. Two years later, on August 18, 1920, women received the right to vote.
101 years since, and the fight for gender equality within the United States (let alone the world) continues to persist. Women have rights; however, we see too often cases where women are disadvantaged in the workplace, in politics, and in other facets of society. Women’s marches have transpired across the country in opposition to current President Trump’s remarks and stances on contested issues specifically regarding women (i.e., abortion). Women’s voices are not going away, but only getting stronger with each new pressing issue that arises.
For more information, please visit:
http://todayinclh.com/?event=president-wilson-finally-supports-womens-suffrage
January 8, 1811: The Largest Slave Rebellion in U.S. History Erupts in Louisiana
The largest slave uprising in U.S. history occurred January 8-10, 1811 in the Territory of Orleans, now Louisiana. It was named Andry’s Rebellion after Manual Andry, the owner of the plantation where the uprising began, but it is also sometimes referred to as the German Coast Uprising. After Haitians won their independence from the French in 1804, many white planters relocated to Louisiana where they could continue to enslave black laborers. Inspired by the Haitian Revolution of 1791, Charles Deslondes, a Haitian born slave, led the 1811 rebellion. It began with about 15 slaves on January 8, 1811, at the Andry Plantation where Deslondes was enslaved, but as they marched along the Mississippi River, it grew to 500 people. The fighters recruited while they attacked plantations and plantation owners. On January 11, 700 white soldiers confronted the rebellion, captured Deslondes, and executed him the next day. By the end of the uprising, two whites and 95 blacks had been killed.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-08/
https://blackpast.org/aah/andry-s-rebellion-1811
January 7, 1966: Alabama Students Protest the Murder of Civil Rights Activist Samuel Younge Jr.
Samuel “Sammy” Younge Jr. was a student activist at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama who worked with the Tuskegee Institute Advancement League (TIAL) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to help register black voters in Macon County, Alabama. He was 21 years old when he was shot and killed by a white gas station attendant named Marvin Segrest after a day of working at a voter-registration drive. Younge had asked to use the gas station bathroom, and Segrest had directed him to the “colored” restroom. When Younge replied that he would prefer to use the regular restroom, Segrest pulled out a pistol and threatened to shoot him unless he left immediately. Younge called the police and told Segrest that the police were on their way. Segrest then fired at Younge until he shot him in the head and killed him in cold blood. Samuel Younge was the fifth civil rights activist to be killed in Alabama in 12 months, and he was the first black college student to be killed because of his participation in the American civil rights movement. Younge’s death was a breaking point for the African American community that had long faced racial injustice by pro-segregation whites. In the weeks after his death, thousands marched in protest. On January 7, 1966, 250 Tuskegee Institute students protested Younge’s murder by marching through downtown Tuskegee and rallying in front of the jail holding Martin Segrest. Segrest was tried for second-degree murder, but he was acquitted on December 8, 1966, by an all-white jury.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-07/
https://eji.org/history-racial-injustice-samuel-younge-jr
http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1669
During World War II, the city of Detroit made promises of higher wages to communities in the South in an effort to fill the new war factories. As the city stood as a hub for economic activity, blacks moved in fleeing racial violence and inequality from the South in a wave known as the Great Migration. However, the new black residents soon realized Detroit was just as segregated as the South and that there was a housing scarcity problem in the city. Black families were banned from most public housing, were forced to pay higher rents, and also faced hostility from the Klu Klux KLan, police, and groups of white workers.
In June 1941, a temporary solution for the housing issue was approved. Detroit policymakers approved plans to build the Sojourner Truth Homes, a public housing project for the black population, in a white neighborhood. On February 28, 1942, protests from local white people ensued as black families were authorized to begin moving in that day. Only a few black families aimed to try braving the mobs and some were struck with rocks. Police responded by halting the move-ins by the black families and arrested more than 200 black people. They only arrested three white individuals.
For more information, please visit:
https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/5963
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.loc.gov/resource/fsa.8d45111/
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/28
February 27, 1922: U.S. Supreme Court Upholds the 19th Amendment as Constitutional
February 27, 1922 marked a monumental day for not only women in the United States, but for the political justice movement beginning to take form in the United States. The 19th Amendment stated that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex." After decades of protests, meetings, and petitions by women suffragists and their supporters, the eight members of the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared the 19th Amendment constitutional. Women's suffrage was finally achieved, and more importantly, women stood on equal political grounds to men in the United States. Nearly 100 years later, and we continue to see women progress farther and farther into the political arena. Many firsts have been accomplished; first female Presidential candidate for a majority party, first female Justice of the US Supreme Court, first female Attorney General, etc. Women continue to delve deeper into legal and political arenas, proving the naysayers wrong each time.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/supreme-court-defends-womens-voting-rights
February 26, 2012: Trayvon Martin Fatally Shot
On this day in 2012, 17-year old Trayvon Martin was fatally shot by George Zimmerman in Samford Florida. Zimmerman was a neighborhood watch captain who saw Trayvon and decided to report the black youth wearing a hooded sweatshirt as a “suspicious person.” Zimmerman did not follow the dispatcher’s instructions and instead followed Trayvon, eventually approaching and shooting him to death. Trayvon was unarmed and was only carrying iced tea and candy. Initially, Zimmerman was not charged due to Florida’s “Stand Your Ground Law” and his claim of self-defense. Heartbroken and outraged, Trayvon’s parents worked with advocates to spread the word about the murder of their son. A national movement was formed in response, as Trayvon represented the peril of being a black man in the United States. On March 21, 2012, New York City held the “Million Hoodie March” where hundreds protested to call for criminal charges against Zimmerman. In April of 2012, George Zimmerman was indicted for the second-degree murder of Trayvon Martin, but he was later acquitted in July of 2013. Trayvon Martin has become a symbol of the Black Lives Matter movement and the criminal justice system's targeting of African American communities.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/26
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/florida-teen-trayvon-martin-is-shot-and-killed
February 25, 1870: Hirman R. Revels Becomes the First Black Representative in Congress
On this day in 1870, Hirman R. Revels made history when he was sworn in as the first African American to serve in the United States Senate. Revels was born in North Carolina and began his career as a minister. During the Civil War, he helped establish African American regiments and schools for freed slaves. After the war, he moved to Mississippi, and his reputation as a strong leader led to his nomination and successful election to the U.S. Senate. Yet, before being elected, Revels faced racist attempts by members of the legislature to block him from serving in Congress. After he served in the Senate for a year, he went on to become the president of Alcorn College in Mississippi.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/First_African_American_Senator.htm
https://thewright.org/index.php/explore/educational-resources/2013-11-28-11-27-37/entry/today-in-black-history-2252015
February 22, 1832: First All Female, All Black Anti-Slavery Society Organized
On this day in 1832, the first all female, all black anti-slavery group formed in Salem, Massachusetts. While the group was initially named The Colored Female Religious and Moral Society of Salem, it changed its name to the Female Anti-Slavery Society of Salem once entering the political realm. Similar to other antislavery societies, the organization addressed numerous issues important to free blacks in addition to campaigning against slavery.
The group supported secular and Sabbath schools for free blacks, assisted newly freed or runaway slaves, and opposed racial segregation and discrimination in the northern free states. They also raised money to support abolitionist publication, were anti-colonization, and their goals were overall fairly identical to later civil rights leaders - the right to vote, an end to oppressive racism, and fair treatment under the law. The group operated from 1832 to 1866.
For more information, please visit:
http://www.congregationallibrary.org/nehh/series3/SFASS
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/female-anti-slavery-society-salem-massachusetts-1832-1866/
http://projects.leadr.msu.edu/youngamerica/exhibits/show/womenabolitionists/womenledorgs
February 21, 1965: Malcolm X Assassinated in Harlem
On this day in 1965, Malcolm X was murdered in New York City while speaking at a rally of his Organization of Afro-American Unity. As one of the most controversial black leaders of the 1960s, his rhetoric and passion inspired the Black Panther Party and other militant black organizations. An African American nationalist and religious leader of Islam, Malcolm’s developed and outspoken philosophy steadily gained followers. While his philosophy was often characterized as radical, his more moderate philosophy became increasingly influential in the civil rights movement, especially among the leads of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee.
Malcolm’s message often came at odds with other civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., who advocated for nonviolent strategies such as civil disobedience and boycotting to achieve integration. Instead, Malcolm was a strong advocate for self-defense and the liberation of African Americans by “any means necessary”. His message primarily honed in on the exploitation, disenfranchisement, and the economic oppression of American blacks. Many of the ideas he articulated, including race pride, became ideologically foundational for the Black Power movement that emerged in the 1960s and ‘70s. After his assassination, the publication of The Autobiography of Malcolm X¨(1965) made him an ideological hero, especially among black youth.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/malcolm-x-assassinated
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malcolm-X
Feb 20, 1956: Warrants Issued in Montgomery Bus Boycott Case
On Feb 20, 1956, 89 arrest warrants were issued for African-American protesters in what is now known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott case. Amongst these protesters were Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy. The decision to issue arrest warrants stemmed from a thirty-four year old anti boycott statute. As times intensified, protesters became more committed, but also more fearful of death. Protesters understood their lives were on the line, but knew the cause they were fighting for was well worth it. Nearly all charges were dropped immediately, but King was indicted. The judge disregarded the claims by King's Attorney, Fred Gray, who argued the statute was unconstitutional and there was just cause for a protest. Eventually, the charges against King were dismissed and the trial fell through.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
February 19, 1942: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, Ordering the Internment of Japanese Americans
Prejudice against Japanese Americans intensified after Japanese forces bombed Pearl Harbor in December of 1941. In response, on February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt officially authorized the internment of Japanese Americans by signing Executive Order 9066. The Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation had emphasized that people of Japanese descent did not pose a security threat, yet this order authorized military leaders to detain and place Japanese Americans in camps without due process. In March of 1942, over 120,000 people with Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast were told they had 7 days to report to concentration camps. These individuals were required to leave their homes, jobs, and possessions and live in camps with inhumane conditions. 70,000 of these individuals were American citizens.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/19
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154
February 18, 1965: Jimmie Lee Jackson, a Young African-American Demonstrator, Fatally Shot; MLK Plans Selma March in Response
On this day in history in 1965, while crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Marion, Alabama, a group of peaceful civil rights demonstrators were attacked by white segregationists. Amidst the violence, an Alabama state trooper fatally shot Jimmie Lee Jackson, a young African-American demonstrator. News of his death spread, causing national outrage. In response, Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC planned a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery in his memory. On March 7, 1965, about 600 people began the 54-mile march from Selma to Montgomery. The ensuing events were key to the congressional response and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/03/07/this-day-in-politics-march-7-1965-437394
February 15, 1851: Abolitionists Free Shadrach Minkins, a Fugitive Enslaved Man
As the first runaway slave to be arrested in New England under the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, Shadrach Minkins was liberated by abolitionists on February 15 of 1851. Born into slavery in Virginia, Minkins lived the first thirty years of his life in his hometown. In May of 1850, however, he decided to escape his enslaved life and go to Boston where he became a waiter. While Boston had been considered a refuge for runaways under the protection of both white and black abolitionists, the Fugitive Slave Act, part of the Compromise of 1850, compromised Boston’s reputation as a safe haven. The act allowed slave owners, with proof of ownership, to legally reclaim runaways throughout the United States.
Minkins was arrested under this law and taken to trial. After the judge refused Minkins’ writ of habeas corpus, a group of black abolitionists broke into the Boston Courthouse and transported Minkins to Canada where he lived a free man for the remainder of his life. The liberation of Minkins catalyzed one of the most dramatic episodes of rebellion and legal wrangling in the United States before the Civil War. He became an icon of the antislavery movement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/minkins-shadrach-1814-1875/
http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674802995
February 14, 2018: One Year Since the Parkland Shooting
Exactly a year ago today, 14 students were shot and murdered at their high school in Parkland, Florida. A total of 17 people were killed at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School that day. The teen gunman who confessed on video to the shooting is still in the trial process a year later, facing a charge of 17 counts of premeditated murder. As another school shooting in a line of tragic moments in U.S. history, this day once again sparked massive outrage and controversy over gun laws, inspiring marches, new laws, and overall calls for tighter gun control in the United States.
Legally, the right to own a gun is constitutionally protected under the 2nd Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Despite this, however, protesters have continued advocating for gun-law reform in a wave of violence sponsored by guns. Parkland student survivors themselves have emerged as a rare voice in the fight over guns, fighting for more regulation with tones of both confidence and innocence. They have traveled to Tallahassee, Florida, and Washington D.C. telling their stories and advocating under the #NeverAgain movement that they launched. In the past year, legislators from both the Democratic and Conservative party enacted 67 new gun safety laws as a response to demands from their constituents. However, support for tighter gun laws has waned in the past year amongst Americans. While 71 percent of Americans said gun laws should be tightened in a poll conducted soon after the Parkland shooting, only 51 percent of Americans support stricter gun laws now.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/us/parkland-obituaries-students.html
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/us/parkland-anniversary-marjory-stoneman-douglas.html
https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/police-respond-shooting-parkland-florida-high-school-n848101
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RiI6AiW96Q
https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/2/14/18224808/parkland-anniversary-gun-control-laws-poll
February 13, 1960: Beginning of Sit-In Campaigns
On this day in history, what became known as the sit-in movement commenced. Hundreds of volunteers - comprised of mainly black college students - in Nashville, Tennessee met to design a series of sit-ins in hopes of challenging racial segregation at lunch counters. The first sit-in totaled around 500 students filing into several downtown stores, and requesting service at well-known segregated establishments. The white store owners refused service to the black college students, and requested that the police arrest them. The police warned the students, but the demonstrator's continued. The next morning, hundreds of the demonstrators began sitting-in at segregated stores again. This time, white teenagers reverted to violence to counter the silent protest (yelling racial epithets, hurling physical objects, etc.). After the police intervened and arrested nearly 80 demonstrators, the arrested activists were given a choice of a monetary fine or jail time.
One of the students, Diane Nash, was among the majority who chose jail time. Her justification rings loud and proud back then, but today her words speak just as strong. Nash informed the judge that paying the fine "would be contributing to and supporting the injustice and immoral practices that have been performed in the arrest and conviction of the defendants" (EJI 1). Nash's speech influenced nearly all of the other defendants to choose jail time instead of paying the monetary fine. Ultimately, after watching dozens of black students being transported to jail, the mayor decided to release the students and created a biracial committee in hopes of desegregating downtown shops. After the success of the Nashville sit-ins, sit-in campaigns commenced throughout numerous other Southern cities.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/13
February 8, 1986: Orangeburg Massacre
On this day in history, what become known as the Orangeburg Massacre, transpired in South Carolina. Students at South Carolina State University were protesting the fact that many public places in the South were still segregating whites and blacks, even though the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made segregation illegal. Tensions began to rise at the protest as the number of students increased to a few hundred by day 3. Thus prompting the National Guard to be called in hoping to quell any acts of violence. However, on Feb 8th, 1968, state troopers opened fire on the student protests, killing three students (Samuel Ephesians Hammond Jr., Delano Herman Middleton, and Henry Ezekial Smith), and wounding nearly fifty more.
After the shooting, Martin Luther King Jr. demanded trial and incarceration for the officers involved. Nine officers charged in the shooting were acquitted. Justice was never served for the three innocent lives taken that day.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
February 7, 1904: Black Man, Luther Holbert, and Unidentified Black Woman Lynched in Mississippi
On February 7th of 1904, a crowd of white people watched and cheered as Luther Holbert and an unidentified black woman were tortured and killed in Doddsville, Mississippi. While some reports attempted to identify the woman as Mr. Holbert’s wife, later research suggested she was not, which is why her identity sadly remains unknown. Mr. Holbert had been accused of shooting and killing a white landowner from a wealthy local family that owned a plantation where many of the area’s black laborers worked. After the shooting, the landowner’s two brothers captured Mr. Holbert and the unidentified black woman.
While the actual circumstances around the white landowner’s death are unknown, the painful death experienced by Mr. Holbert and that woman are not. According to an eyewitness report at the time, both victims were tied to trees while their funeral pyres were prepared. They were brutally tortured up until the moment they were murdered. The atmosphere of this horrific incident was described as “festive”, where the audience of over 600 white spectators “enjoyed deviled eggs, lemonade, and whiskey.”
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/feb/07
Feb 6, 1956: University of Alabama Suspends the First African American from Attending Class:
Feb 6, 1956 marked the day the University of Alabama suspended Autherine Lucy, the first African American to attend the public southern university. Just three days into her college experience, Lucy was told by the university that her suspension was "for her own safety". The university's suspension resulted in days of rioting following the U.S. Supreme Court's orders to admit her into the university. Lucy's expulsion from the university resulted in the resignation of the university's president Oliver Carmichael. Twenty-four years later, the university overturned her expulsion, and Lucy was finally able to earn her master's degree.
Throughout her lifetime, Autherine Lucy could be found advocating for civil rights and educating young people on the importance of civil liberties and equal treatment for all. Lucy, who is still educating the younger generations on civil rights, will always be remembered for her bravery and strength in breaking down racial barriers in a time when many doubted and resisted change.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.clarionledger.com/story/journeytojustice/2015/02/03/civil-rights-history-february-9/22794937/
February 5, 1995: Trayvon Martin Is Born
On this day in 1995, Trayvon Martin was born in Miami Florida. Martin loved football, he aspired to fly or repair airplanes, and he hoped to attend college at the University of Miami or Florida A&M University. On the night of February 26, 2012, 17-year old Martin was returning home from a store in Sanford, Florida when he was followed and eventually shot and killed by neighborhood watchman George Zimmerman. Martin’s death sparked national discourse about racial profiling and police brutality, and in March of 2012, Martin’s parents created the Trayvon Martin Foundation to support victims of gun violence. Zimmerman claimed self-defense under Florida’s Stand Your Ground law, but about six weeks later he was arrested and tried for the second-degree murder of Martin. In July 2013, Zimmerman was acquitted by a jury. The Black Lives Matter movement rose in response to Zimmerman’s acquittal and became a national force against violence and systematic racism towards black people. Trayvon Martin would have been 24-years old today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/07/31/631897758/a-look-back-at-trayvon-martins-death-and-the-movement-it-inspired
https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/03/what-happened-trayvon-martin-explained/
February 4, 1913: Civil Rights Activist Rosa Parks Is Born
Mrs. Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama. Mrs. Parks attended high school in Montgomery, Alabama, but she had to drop out to care for her ailing grandmother. In 1932, she married Raymond Parks, an activist who defended the Scottsboro Boys and a member of the NAACP. Rosa Parks became very active in the civil rights movement when she joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP in 1943, and she was elected as secretary and later became a youth leader there. On December 1, 1955, Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a segregated city bus. This famous incident created the momentum for the Montgomery bus boycott, and Parks came to be recognized as the “mother of the modern civil rights movement.”
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history#February
http://www.rosaparks.org/biography/
February 1, 1790: First Session of the U.S. Supreme Court
For the very first time, the U.S. Supreme Court met on February 1st of 1790. The Court had been established just the previous year by Article Three of the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution granted the Court ultimate jurisdiction over all laws, especially those in which their constitutionality was at issue. In order to establish the structure of the court, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was passed by Congress and signed by President George Washington, establishing the Court as a tribunal made up of six justices who were to serve until death or retirement.
Since the Judiciary Act had also created the “inferior” courts which just began their operations, there were no appeals to be heard the Court. Instead, they spent their first year without a case focusing on approving bar appointments and organizing the court system. It took two years for the justices to hear their first argument.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-were-the-first-six-supreme-court-justices
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-session-of-the-u-s-supreme-court
January 31,1865: 13th Amendment Passed by Congress
On January 31, 1864, the U.S. Congress passed the 13th Amendment, which was eventually ratified in December of the same year. Section 1 of the amendment outlawed chattel slavery and involuntary servitude (except as punishment for a crime), while Section 2 gave the U.S. Congress power to enforce this amendment via appropriate legislation. The amendment was adopted post-American Civil War in order to abolish slavery during Reconstruction.
However, Reconstruction failed in that Southern states began to implement Jim Crow segregation and economic subjugation policies to continue the oppression of black populations with the U.S. While the 13th Amendment along with the 14th and 15th Amendments sought to establish equality for black Americans, the struggle to achieve full equality and guarantee the civil rights of all Americans would continue into the 20th and 21st Century.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thirteenth-amendment
https://www.historynet.com/thirteenth-amendment
Jan 30, 1956: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's Home Bombed in Montgomery, Alabama
In 1956, one month after the beginning of the Montgomery bus boycott, the home of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was bombed. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr's wife Coretta, seven-week-old daughter Yolanda, and a neighbor were home at the time, fortunately, nobody was injured. During the bombing, Dr. King was delivering a speech at a large meeting, and once notified, arrived swiftly back to his home in Montgomery, Alabama, to around 300 African Americans gathered outside, ready to defend Dr. King with weapons.
King is famously quoted by responding to the bombing and presence of those seeking to protect him, "If you have weapons, take them home; if you do not have them, please do not seek them. We cannot solve this problem through violence. We must meet violence with nonviolence" (A History of Racial Injustice). King's advocacy for nonviolence continues to be a prominent strategy for civil rights activists today.
For more information, please visit:
https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jan/30
January 29, 1883: Supreme Court Confirms Miscegenation Laws in Alabama
In 1881, a couple in Clarke County, Alabama was convicted of violating a miscegenation law that outlawed interracial relationships and marriages. The case went on to the Alabama Supreme Court, which held that "fornication" between races was inherently "evil." In Pace v. Alabama, the Court upheld the conviction on the grounds that the law did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because it applied to both races equally. This case went on to be used as precedent in anti-miscegenation laws across the South until 1967, when Loving v. Virginia was overturned by the Supreme Court.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/106/583
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-29/
January 28, 1934: Black Man Found Innocent in Tampa, Florida Rape Charge; Kidnapped and Killed a Few Days Later
In Tampa, Florida a 40-year old black man named Robert Johnson was arrested after being accused of raping a white woman on January 28, 1934. The charges were dropped after the police conducted an investigation, but Johnson was transferred to county jail after the police continued to hold him on theft charges. The transfer was strangely carried out in the middle of the night by Deputy Constable Thomas Grave, and their car was stopped by a mob of white men who disarmed Grave and kidnapped Johnson. The mob carried Johnson to a forested area where a crowd had gathered for a lynching, and he was shot several times and killed. The Governor later called an investigation of the lynching, but no charges were produced and the mob was never prosecuted.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-28/
Jan 25, 1890: The Birth of the National Afro-American League
On this day in history, journalist Timothy Thomas Fortune co-founded the National Afro-American League (AAL) in Chicago. The AAL challenged existing misconceptions about race and equality, while also speaking out against lynching, mob violence, and discrimination of all forms. The majority of the public did not appreciate or listen to the AAL. However, even though the AAL disbanded after only four years, the AAL served as an example of what can be accomplished in the fight against civil injustice, as well as serving as a springboard for other national Negro Organizations for the future.
Speaking out against injustice is only the first step in securing equal rights for all. Voices must be heard. The AAL represented those who couldn't speak for their rights. Today, the same dilemma persists. More and more individuals must speak out against injustice, if not, injustice will continue to persevere.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
January 24, 1993: Thurgood Marshall Passed Away
On January 24, 1993, attorney and first African-American Supreme Court Justice, Thurgood Marshall passed away. As a lawyer, Marshall argued and won numerous civil rights issue cases. These cases include Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), in which the Supreme Court struck down the legality of racially restrictive covenants, and Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which held that racial segregation in public education is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause. Brown v. Board was the landmark case that demolished the legal basis for segregation across America.
After years of successful cases brought to the Supreme Court challenging state-sponsored discrimination, Marshall was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 1961. In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson appointed him to the U.S. Supreme Court. Until his retirement in 1991, Marshall continued to push for the protection of rights of all citizens. His legacy ultimately earned him the title “Mr. Civil Rights”.
For more information, please visit:
thurgoodmarshall.com
https://www.naacpldf.org/about-us/history/thurgood-marshall/
https://www.oyez.org/justices/thurgood_marshall
https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/justice-thurgood-marshall-profile-brown-v-board
January 23, 1964: 24th Amendment Abolishes Voting Poll Taxes
January 23rd, 1964 marked a memorable date in U.S. political history. On this day, the 24th Amendment was created, which abolished the poll tax. The poll tax had originally been instituted in 11 southern states after reconstruction to make it difficult for poor blacks to vote. The 24th Amendment acted as a stepping stone in the country's political history in terms of helping marginalized individuals gain greater rights to access and participate in America's political system.
In order to have all voices heard, no restrictions or obstacles may be in place to prevent certain voices from being recognized. In today's political climate, we continue to see obstacles for marginalized groups to access their voting rights. Just a few months ago, the 2018 Georgia governor election saw voting polls mysteriously shut down in predominantly African-American neighborhoods.
For more information, please visit:
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxiv
January 22, 1883: The Supreme Court Dismantles Law Against Terrorism by KKK
In Crockett County, Tennessee in 1876 a mob of nineteen men stormed the local jail and beat up four African American men: Robert Smith, William Overton, George Wells, Jr., and P.M. Wells, killing one of the men. The mob had been led by Sheriff R. G. Harris, and he and the other perpetrators were charged under the Force Act of 1871, also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1871. The Act had been passed by Congress to protect black Americans from racial violence by making it a federal crime for terrorist individuals and groups such as the Ku Klux Klan to use intimidation practices to interfere with individuals’ rights to equal protection under the law. On January 22, 1883, in the case United States v. Harris, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Force Act was unconstitutional because the Fourteenth Amendment could only allow Congress to penalize state action that violated the Amendment, not the acts of individuals.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-22/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/106us629
January 21, 2019: Martin Luther King Jr. Day
In 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill declaring Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday to be observed on the third Monday of January to celebrate King’s birthday and civil rights achievements. This year, it fell on January 21, and thousands around the country turned out to march in his honor and take part in fairs and workshops held by community activists. Martin Luther King Jr. is remembered as one of the most prominent leaders of the civil rights movement, and in 1955, he organized the first protest of the movement, the Montgomery bus boycott. King was a pastor and compelling speaker who moved the country with his message of non-violence and using civil disobedience to dismantle racial segregation.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mlk-federal-holiday-declared
https://www.seattlepi.com/seattlenews/article/Thousands-turnout-for-annual-MLK-Jr-Day-March-13549986.php
January 17, 1977: First Person Executed in U.S. Since Reinstatement of Death Penalty
Gary Gilmore, a career criminal, was sentenced for execution on October 7th of 1976 and then shot to death by a firing squad in Utah on January 17th of the next year. After a several year ban on the death penalty, Gilmore was the first person to be executed by the state since the end of the ban.
In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty qualified as "cruel and unusual punishment", violating the eight Amendment to the Constitution. This was primarily because states used capital punishment in an "arbitrary and capricious way", especially in regard to race. However, in 1976, the court ended the constitutional ban on capital punishment as long as states created specific guidelines for imposing death sentences. Gilmore's death however, did not immediately trigger an immediate wave of executions. Only five more criminals by the end of 1982 had been put to death. It was in later years that the use of capital punishment increased.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gary-Gilmore
January 16, 1965: CORE Civil Rights Workers
On Jan 16, 1965, eighteen people were arrested in Mississippi for the murder of three civil rights workers. Those three individuals were Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, both white New Yorkers, and James Chaney, a Mississippi African American man. All three had joined CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) in 1963. The objective of their roles in CORE were to help organize civil rights efforts in the deeply segregated state of Mississippi. All eighteen of the individuals involved in the three murders were part of the Ku Klux Klan. All three men were shot to death because of their involvement in civil rights matters.
In order to give the federal government jurisdiction in the case, all suspects were charged with civil rights violations. An all-white jury reached a mixed verdict; nine acquitted, two undecided, and seven guilty. The result was perceived as a major civil rights victory, as no one previously had accomplished a conviction for actions taken against a civil rights worker.
With the MLK Holiday approaching, one should take a moment and reflect on how the United States remains divided and in what ways a difference can be made. Civil rights are vital to a successful and equal society, and opportunities exist everywhere to challenge situations that are in need of improvement.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/slain-civil-rights-workers-found
January 15, 1991: The Supreme Court Approves Oklahoma City School Board to Dissolve Integration Order
In 1972, after a federal court order required Oklahoma City schools to establish a busing program for desegregation in compliance with Brown v. Board, the school board successfully had the order removed when the federal court determined that integration had been successful. In 1984, the Board of Education of Oklahoma City Schools created a plan to re-segregate Oklahoma City schools, but many parents of African American students fought against this plan and brought it to court. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit listened in 1989 and reinstated the original 1972 order, but in response, the school board appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. On January 15, 1991, the Supreme Court announced its 5-3 decision that if the Board showed it was following the Equal Protection Clause and unlikely to return to its former ways, then the district court could lift the order. Even though the Oklahoma City schools had been re-segregating under their new plan, the lower court’s assessment of the situation still validated that new plan.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-15/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1990/89-1080
January 14, 1942: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lays the Groundwork for the Internment of Japanese-Americans
On January 14, 1942, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt issued Proclamation 2537, which was the precursor to Executive Order 9066 calling for the internment of Japanese-Americans. Proclamation 2537 ordered “aliens” from Germany, Italy, and Japan to register with the U.S. Department of Justice and obtain a Certificate of Identification for Aliens of Enemy Nationality. This gave the government permission to arrest people with this status and place them into detention for trespassing areas categorized as “restricted.” Only a month later, Roosevelt gave in and signed Executive Order 9066, which fully permitted the government to physically force all Japanese Americans into internment camps.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/roosevelt-ushers-in-japanese-american-internment
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jan14/initial-idea-japanese-american-internment/
January 11, 1957: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference began
Non-violent activists gathered in Atlanta, Georgia to protest segregation across the South. Led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the group of about 60 ministers and others formed a new organization that soon became known as one of the leading civil rights organizations in the United States. This organization is the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The SCLC took part in numerous campaigns in hopes of combating racial injustice. Eventually, the organization's efforts reached a peak; all the campaigning and protesting finally helped end the Jim Crow Laws in 1965.
Martin Luther King Jr. stood for justice, peace, and equality. Until his death in 2018, King's impact reached far beyond just the leader of the SCLC. MLK's teachings hold a substantial place in American society today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nysut.org/resources/all-listing/2015/april/this-week-in-civil-rights-history
January 9, 1918: Women's right to vote is publicly endorsed by President Woodrow Wilson
On January 9, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson publicly declared his advocacy for a women’s right to vote. Wilson, who previously refused to take a position on the issue, finally announced his support for women’s suffrage. While some see President Wilson’s remarks as an attempt to solely garner more votes for the upcoming congressional elections, others mark this day as a win for women, for social justice, and for gender equality in the United States. Two years later, on August 18, 1920, women received the right to vote.
101 years since, and the fight for gender equality within the United States (let alone the world) continues to persist. Women have rights; however, we see too often cases where women are disadvantaged in the workplace, in politics, and in other facets of society. Women’s marches have transpired across the country in opposition to current President Trump’s remarks and stances on contested issues specifically regarding women (i.e., abortion). Women’s voices are not going away, but only getting stronger with each new pressing issue that arises.
For more information, please visit:
http://todayinclh.com/?event=president-wilson-finally-supports-womens-suffrage
January 8, 1811: The Largest Slave Rebellion in U.S. History Erupts in Louisiana
The largest slave uprising in U.S. history occurred January 8-10, 1811 in the Territory of Orleans, now Louisiana. It was named Andry’s Rebellion after Manual Andry, the owner of the plantation where the uprising began, but it is also sometimes referred to as the German Coast Uprising. After Haitians won their independence from the French in 1804, many white planters relocated to Louisiana where they could continue to enslave black laborers. Inspired by the Haitian Revolution of 1791, Charles Deslondes, a Haitian born slave, led the 1811 rebellion. It began with about 15 slaves on January 8, 1811, at the Andry Plantation where Deslondes was enslaved, but as they marched along the Mississippi River, it grew to 500 people. The fighters recruited while they attacked plantations and plantation owners. On January 11, 700 white soldiers confronted the rebellion, captured Deslondes, and executed him the next day. By the end of the uprising, two whites and 95 blacks had been killed.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-08/
https://blackpast.org/aah/andry-s-rebellion-1811
January 7, 1966: Alabama Students Protest the Murder of Civil Rights Activist Samuel Younge Jr.
Samuel “Sammy” Younge Jr. was a student activist at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama who worked with the Tuskegee Institute Advancement League (TIAL) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to help register black voters in Macon County, Alabama. He was 21 years old when he was shot and killed by a white gas station attendant named Marvin Segrest after a day of working at a voter-registration drive. Younge had asked to use the gas station bathroom, and Segrest had directed him to the “colored” restroom. When Younge replied that he would prefer to use the regular restroom, Segrest pulled out a pistol and threatened to shoot him unless he left immediately. Younge called the police and told Segrest that the police were on their way. Segrest then fired at Younge until he shot him in the head and killed him in cold blood. Samuel Younge was the fifth civil rights activist to be killed in Alabama in 12 months, and he was the first black college student to be killed because of his participation in the American civil rights movement. Younge’s death was a breaking point for the African American community that had long faced racial injustice by pro-segregation whites. In the weeks after his death, thousands marched in protest. On January 7, 1966, 250 Tuskegee Institute students protested Younge’s murder by marching through downtown Tuskegee and rallying in front of the jail holding Martin Segrest. Segrest was tried for second-degree murder, but he was acquitted on December 8, 1966, by an all-white jury.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/01-07/
https://eji.org/history-racial-injustice-samuel-younge-jr
http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1669
DECEMBER 2018
December 14, 1964: The Supreme Court Prohibited Racial Discrimination in Private Hotels
On December 14, 1964, in deciding Heart of American Motel v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the law prohibiting racial discrimination in private hotels. The Heart of Atlanta Motel, located in Atlanta, Georgia until this time, refused to provide service to African American patrons starting in 1956. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 specifically prohibiting discrimination in places of public accommodations. Upon the passage of the act, the owner of the hotel sued the federal government to bar enforcement of its provisions. In his suit, the owner claimed that Congress had exceeded their power to regulate commerce in doing so. In the case however, the Supreme Court upheld the passage of the Civil Rights Act and ordered the Heart of Atlanta Motel to comply and begin to service African Americans. The court argued that they did have the power to do so because they had the power to regulate the transportation of people between states. Like so, hotels applied. After the decision, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became instrumental in changing discrimination practices in businesses in the South. Though it took quite some time for businesses to comply with equal practices, but the Court’s ruling was a step in the right direction.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-14/
December 13, 2014: A Washington D.C. Protest Moves the Nation To Rise Up Against Police Violence
On December 13, 2014 thousands of people came together in Washington D.C. to protest police violence and the wrongful killings of unarmed black men. In a call for action, families of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, Eric Garner and other unarmed black men came together. Tens of thousands of people joined them at the National Mall. After white police officers were not held responsible for the deaths of two unarmed black men in Missouri and New York, people were protesting to demand a change in the system. Along with the march in D.C., thousands marched in other cities such as Seattle, New York City and Boston.
Despite the countless protests and demand for action, we continue to see this problem with little progress from where we were a few years ago. Young black men are disproportionately represented in arrests, incarcerated far more than any other group, and far too often, are the victims of police violence. The Washington D.C. protest nudged thousands of people towards an understanding where the system needs to change so not to disproportionately and wrongfully target people of color.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/14/us/thousands-march-in-washington-to-protest-deaths-by-police.html
December 11, 1917: Black Soldiers Executed in Houston, Texas:
On December 11, 1917, 13 black soldiers were executed after a revolt sparked by local police brutality in Houston, Texas. In July of 1917, an all African American Infantry Regiment was stationed at Fort Logan in Texas. They were assigned to guard white soldiers preparing for deployment to Europe. During this time, they were continually harassed and abused by the Houston police force. The police would regularly beat the troops and arrest them without any cause. The situation escalated on August 23, 1917 when several soldiers and a corporal were brutally beaten by the police. In retaliation, more than 150 soldiers organized and staged a revolt. The revolt ended in a violent confrontation and 16 civilian deaths.
After the revolt, 157 involved black soldiers were investigated and scheduled for three separate trials. In the first trial, the state tried 63 soldiers and convicted 54; of these 54, 13 were sentenced to death and 43 were given life in prison. Those sentenced to death were not given a chance to appeal. They were hung on December 11, 1917. The second and third trials sentenced another 16 soldiers to death. These 16 were given the right to appeal, however given the unlawful execution of the first 13, their chance at success was slim. In all, 19 soldiers ended up being executed as the result of the revolt. The soldiers involved in the revolt were all fighting to end harassment and wrongful arrests. Instead of receiving justice, many ended up with life in prison and 16 were executed.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-11/
December 9, 1872: P. B. S. Pinchback Becomes the First AFrican American Governor
On December 9, 1872, Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback became the first African American governor in the United States. Born to a slave mother and a white master in Mississppi in 1837, Pinchback was a salve until later freed as a young child. Once freed, he and his mother moved to Ohio but his mother died when he was only 12 years old. After his mother's death he traveled back to the south and began to work as a cabin boy. In 1862, he enlisted in the Union Army and encouraged other African Americans to join him. Post-civil war, he joined the Louisiana Republican Party and was later elected as the President Pro Tempore of the Senate. Following the 1872 presidential election in which Ulysses Grant was elected president, the Louisiana senate impeached their current governor, Henry Clay Warmouth. Upon Warmouth’s removal, Pinchback took over office. On December 9, 1872, Pinchback was sworn in as the Governor of Louisiana, making him the first black governor of the United States. He was only in office for 43 days, however, when a special election was held and William Pitt Kellog btook office. The United States did not elect another black governor for 118 years.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-09/
December 7, 1874: White Mob Attacks Black Political Meeting in Vicksburg, Mississippi
A former slave, Peter Crosby, was elected to be the Sheriff in Vicksburg, Mississippi. Soon after assuming office, Crosby was indicted on false criminal charges and was removed from his position by a violent white mob. Whites attacked and killed many black citizens who tried to reinstate Crosby in the “Vicksburg Massacre.” About six months after this massacre, Crosby’s deputy shot him in the head over a disagreement. The deputy was arrested for the attempted assassination but was never brought to trial. Crosby survived the injury but never fully recovered.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1870s/
December 6, 1915: U.S. Supreme Court Upholds Federal Statute that Strips Women of Citizenship When They Marry Foreigners
In Mackenzie v. Hare, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a federal statute that stripped American women of their citizenship if they married foreign men. This federal statue was the Expiration Act of 1907 which was signed by President Theodore Roosevelt and it did not apply to men who married foreign women. Women who lost their U.S. citizenship could apply to be naturalized if their husbands later became American citizens. But, almost all Asians were barred from becoming U.S. citizens so women who married foreign Asian men had no way to regain their citizenship.
The Supreme Court reasoned that involuntary revocation of citizenship would be unconstitutional but since these women were entering marriages with foreign men voluntarily, taking away their citizenship was constitutional. In 1922, Congress amended the law to permit most women to retain their American citizenship after marriage to a non-U.S. citizen but continued to exclude American women who married Asian men ineligible for citizenship.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1910s/
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/03/17/520517665/that-time-american-women-lost-their-citizenship-because-they-married-foreigners
December 5, 1960: Supreme Court Rules Racial Segregation in Interstate Bus Terminals is Unconstitutional
In Boynton v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that racial segregation in restaurants inside of an interstate bus terminal is unconstitutional. On his was home to Montgomery, Alabama from Washington D.C., Howard Law student Bruce Boynton was arrested in Richmond, Virginia. He had refused to move to the “colored” section of a lunchroom in a bus terminal. This led to Boynton's conviction for trespassing and he was ordered to pay a $10 fine.
Boynton challenged his conviction with the help of Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP. Boynton contended that since he was a passenger on the bus that the company engaged in commerce across state lines giving him the federal right to be served without discrimination by the restaurant. The State of Virginia then argued that the terminal restaurant was not operated by the bus company and therefore the Interstate Commerce Act’s directive did not apply. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Boynton, overturning his conviction and prohibiting discrimination in interstate bus terminal facilities nationwide.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1960/7
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10079584755453463159&q=boynton+v.+virginia&hl=en&as_sdt=6,48&as_vis=1
December 4, 1849: Massachusetts Supreme Court Upholds Segregated Schools
Massachusetts Supreme Court hears arguments in Roberts v. City of Boston and later rules that the city can mandate separate schools for black and white children. After the end of slavery in the state of Massachusetts in 1783, African American parents were eager to enroll their children in school but African American children attending white schools faced massive amounts of harassment from whites. Boston’s African Americans petitioned for segregated schools as a protective measure for their children.
By 1840, there was concern for segregated schools since African American schools were underfunded and when black students sought admission to white schools they were denied. Becoming fed up with this system, African American families enlisted legal representation for a case challenging school segregation in the state. The lead plaintiff in Roberts v. City of Boston on behalf of his five-year-old daughter who was rejected from a school because she was black. The Massachusetts Supreme Court ultimately ruled that as long there was a school for “colored” students then segregated schools did not violate the law. Five years later this ruling was overturned when the state legislature banned discrimination in public school admissions.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1840s/
December 3, 1970: Cesar Chavez Jailed for Continuing Farm Worker Strike
Cesar Chavez is jailed in Monterey County, California, after he refuses to follow a court order demanding that he call off a migrant farm workers’ strike against a lettuce farm. Coercive tactics were used on Latino migrant workers to prevent them from joining Chavez’s United Farm Workers union in Salinas Valley. A massive strike was organized by the United Farm Workers union as a response. Farm owners fired hundreds of Latino migrant farm workers and targeted workers with violence in retaliation towards strike participants. Violence continued against the leaders of the United Farm Workers and in November of 1970, their offices in Salinas Valley were bombed.
Chavez organized a boycott of lettuce produced by farms that had used coercive tactics against the United Farm Workers. Farm owners sought an anti-boycott injunction that was granted by a Monterey Court Judge. After refusing to end the boycott, Chavez was held in contempt of court and was charged. Judge Gordon Campbell sentenced Chavez to an indefinite jail term. He spent 20 days in an isolated jail cell before being released on December 24, 1970.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1970s/
On December 14, 1964, in deciding Heart of American Motel v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the law prohibiting racial discrimination in private hotels. The Heart of Atlanta Motel, located in Atlanta, Georgia until this time, refused to provide service to African American patrons starting in 1956. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 specifically prohibiting discrimination in places of public accommodations. Upon the passage of the act, the owner of the hotel sued the federal government to bar enforcement of its provisions. In his suit, the owner claimed that Congress had exceeded their power to regulate commerce in doing so. In the case however, the Supreme Court upheld the passage of the Civil Rights Act and ordered the Heart of Atlanta Motel to comply and begin to service African Americans. The court argued that they did have the power to do so because they had the power to regulate the transportation of people between states. Like so, hotels applied. After the decision, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became instrumental in changing discrimination practices in businesses in the South. Though it took quite some time for businesses to comply with equal practices, but the Court’s ruling was a step in the right direction.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-14/
December 13, 2014: A Washington D.C. Protest Moves the Nation To Rise Up Against Police Violence
On December 13, 2014 thousands of people came together in Washington D.C. to protest police violence and the wrongful killings of unarmed black men. In a call for action, families of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, Eric Garner and other unarmed black men came together. Tens of thousands of people joined them at the National Mall. After white police officers were not held responsible for the deaths of two unarmed black men in Missouri and New York, people were protesting to demand a change in the system. Along with the march in D.C., thousands marched in other cities such as Seattle, New York City and Boston.
Despite the countless protests and demand for action, we continue to see this problem with little progress from where we were a few years ago. Young black men are disproportionately represented in arrests, incarcerated far more than any other group, and far too often, are the victims of police violence. The Washington D.C. protest nudged thousands of people towards an understanding where the system needs to change so not to disproportionately and wrongfully target people of color.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/14/us/thousands-march-in-washington-to-protest-deaths-by-police.html
December 11, 1917: Black Soldiers Executed in Houston, Texas:
On December 11, 1917, 13 black soldiers were executed after a revolt sparked by local police brutality in Houston, Texas. In July of 1917, an all African American Infantry Regiment was stationed at Fort Logan in Texas. They were assigned to guard white soldiers preparing for deployment to Europe. During this time, they were continually harassed and abused by the Houston police force. The police would regularly beat the troops and arrest them without any cause. The situation escalated on August 23, 1917 when several soldiers and a corporal were brutally beaten by the police. In retaliation, more than 150 soldiers organized and staged a revolt. The revolt ended in a violent confrontation and 16 civilian deaths.
After the revolt, 157 involved black soldiers were investigated and scheduled for three separate trials. In the first trial, the state tried 63 soldiers and convicted 54; of these 54, 13 were sentenced to death and 43 were given life in prison. Those sentenced to death were not given a chance to appeal. They were hung on December 11, 1917. The second and third trials sentenced another 16 soldiers to death. These 16 were given the right to appeal, however given the unlawful execution of the first 13, their chance at success was slim. In all, 19 soldiers ended up being executed as the result of the revolt. The soldiers involved in the revolt were all fighting to end harassment and wrongful arrests. Instead of receiving justice, many ended up with life in prison and 16 were executed.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-11/
December 9, 1872: P. B. S. Pinchback Becomes the First AFrican American Governor
On December 9, 1872, Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback became the first African American governor in the United States. Born to a slave mother and a white master in Mississppi in 1837, Pinchback was a salve until later freed as a young child. Once freed, he and his mother moved to Ohio but his mother died when he was only 12 years old. After his mother's death he traveled back to the south and began to work as a cabin boy. In 1862, he enlisted in the Union Army and encouraged other African Americans to join him. Post-civil war, he joined the Louisiana Republican Party and was later elected as the President Pro Tempore of the Senate. Following the 1872 presidential election in which Ulysses Grant was elected president, the Louisiana senate impeached their current governor, Henry Clay Warmouth. Upon Warmouth’s removal, Pinchback took over office. On December 9, 1872, Pinchback was sworn in as the Governor of Louisiana, making him the first black governor of the United States. He was only in office for 43 days, however, when a special election was held and William Pitt Kellog btook office. The United States did not elect another black governor for 118 years.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/12-09/
December 7, 1874: White Mob Attacks Black Political Meeting in Vicksburg, Mississippi
A former slave, Peter Crosby, was elected to be the Sheriff in Vicksburg, Mississippi. Soon after assuming office, Crosby was indicted on false criminal charges and was removed from his position by a violent white mob. Whites attacked and killed many black citizens who tried to reinstate Crosby in the “Vicksburg Massacre.” About six months after this massacre, Crosby’s deputy shot him in the head over a disagreement. The deputy was arrested for the attempted assassination but was never brought to trial. Crosby survived the injury but never fully recovered.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1870s/
December 6, 1915: U.S. Supreme Court Upholds Federal Statute that Strips Women of Citizenship When They Marry Foreigners
In Mackenzie v. Hare, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a federal statute that stripped American women of their citizenship if they married foreign men. This federal statue was the Expiration Act of 1907 which was signed by President Theodore Roosevelt and it did not apply to men who married foreign women. Women who lost their U.S. citizenship could apply to be naturalized if their husbands later became American citizens. But, almost all Asians were barred from becoming U.S. citizens so women who married foreign Asian men had no way to regain their citizenship.
The Supreme Court reasoned that involuntary revocation of citizenship would be unconstitutional but since these women were entering marriages with foreign men voluntarily, taking away their citizenship was constitutional. In 1922, Congress amended the law to permit most women to retain their American citizenship after marriage to a non-U.S. citizen but continued to exclude American women who married Asian men ineligible for citizenship.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1910s/
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/03/17/520517665/that-time-american-women-lost-their-citizenship-because-they-married-foreigners
December 5, 1960: Supreme Court Rules Racial Segregation in Interstate Bus Terminals is Unconstitutional
In Boynton v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that racial segregation in restaurants inside of an interstate bus terminal is unconstitutional. On his was home to Montgomery, Alabama from Washington D.C., Howard Law student Bruce Boynton was arrested in Richmond, Virginia. He had refused to move to the “colored” section of a lunchroom in a bus terminal. This led to Boynton's conviction for trespassing and he was ordered to pay a $10 fine.
Boynton challenged his conviction with the help of Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP. Boynton contended that since he was a passenger on the bus that the company engaged in commerce across state lines giving him the federal right to be served without discrimination by the restaurant. The State of Virginia then argued that the terminal restaurant was not operated by the bus company and therefore the Interstate Commerce Act’s directive did not apply. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Boynton, overturning his conviction and prohibiting discrimination in interstate bus terminal facilities nationwide.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1960/7
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10079584755453463159&q=boynton+v.+virginia&hl=en&as_sdt=6,48&as_vis=1
December 4, 1849: Massachusetts Supreme Court Upholds Segregated Schools
Massachusetts Supreme Court hears arguments in Roberts v. City of Boston and later rules that the city can mandate separate schools for black and white children. After the end of slavery in the state of Massachusetts in 1783, African American parents were eager to enroll their children in school but African American children attending white schools faced massive amounts of harassment from whites. Boston’s African Americans petitioned for segregated schools as a protective measure for their children.
By 1840, there was concern for segregated schools since African American schools were underfunded and when black students sought admission to white schools they were denied. Becoming fed up with this system, African American families enlisted legal representation for a case challenging school segregation in the state. The lead plaintiff in Roberts v. City of Boston on behalf of his five-year-old daughter who was rejected from a school because she was black. The Massachusetts Supreme Court ultimately ruled that as long there was a school for “colored” students then segregated schools did not violate the law. Five years later this ruling was overturned when the state legislature banned discrimination in public school admissions.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1840s/
December 3, 1970: Cesar Chavez Jailed for Continuing Farm Worker Strike
Cesar Chavez is jailed in Monterey County, California, after he refuses to follow a court order demanding that he call off a migrant farm workers’ strike against a lettuce farm. Coercive tactics were used on Latino migrant workers to prevent them from joining Chavez’s United Farm Workers union in Salinas Valley. A massive strike was organized by the United Farm Workers union as a response. Farm owners fired hundreds of Latino migrant farm workers and targeted workers with violence in retaliation towards strike participants. Violence continued against the leaders of the United Farm Workers and in November of 1970, their offices in Salinas Valley were bombed.
Chavez organized a boycott of lettuce produced by farms that had used coercive tactics against the United Farm Workers. Farm owners sought an anti-boycott injunction that was granted by a Monterey Court Judge. After refusing to end the boycott, Chavez was held in contempt of court and was charged. Judge Gordon Campbell sentenced Chavez to an indefinite jail term. He spent 20 days in an isolated jail cell before being released on December 24, 1970.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1970s/
november 2018
Novemeber 30, 1952: Jackie Robinson Speaks Up on TV Charging New York Yankees with racism
On November 30, 1952 Jackie Robinson charges the New York Yankees with racism. Until the death of Kenesaw Landis in 1944, the U.S baseball commissioner highly opposed to integration, major leagues did not allow any black players. After his death, the Dogers’ president, Branch Rickey decided to desegregate the major leagues by hiring one black player, Jackie Robinson. He became the first African American to play in the major leagues and went on to become the first Black National League Most Valuable Player in 1949. During his time in the league he faced much opposition fueled with hate and racism from fans, opposing teams and even teammates, but still he never gave into it. Finally, on November 30, 1952 he spoke up on a local TV show, accusing the Yankee’s management of being racist for refusing to hire black players. Although the Yankees denied his accusation, they did not end up hiring any black players until 3 years later in 1955. After this and his time in the league, he went on to become more involved in civil rights causes, fighting for the equality of both players and people alike.
For more information, please visit:
https://player.fm/series/human-rights-a-day-1446196/november-30-1952-jackie-robinson
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jackie-robinson-breaks-major-league-color-barrier
November 29, 1975: President Gerald Ford Passes the Education for all Handicapped Children Act
On November 29, 1975 President Gerald Ford required states to provide free education for the handicapped through the passage of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act. In the wake of activism pushing for equal rights in the country, President Ford passed this act in an attempt to give children with disabilities equal opportunities in public schools. At the time, many schools had very limited obligations to these children and those with severe disabilities were kept out of public schools completely; those who did attend were segregated from their non-disabled peers. While the act promised many things, it did not work as well in practice. A few advances were made, but there was a lack of funding to actually implement much of what the act promised. Even so, the act was a step in the right direction to giving children equality in the education system.
For more information, please visit:
https://commons.trincoll.edu/edreform/2012/05/the-education-for-all-handicapped-children-act-a-faltering-step-towards-integration/
November 28, 1871: Ku Klux Klan trials began in the Federal District Court in South Carolina
On November 28, 1871 Ku Klux Klan trials began in the Federal District Court in South Carolina. 220 Klansmen were indicted, but only 5 of them were prosecuted for conspiracy to prevent “male citizens of the United States of African descent” from voting in the 1972 election. They attempted to stop 3 black men from voting in the election by threatening and intimidating them before they got to the polls.
There were four trials held, spanning over the course of a month. The initial trials were held before the U.S. Circuit Court in Columbia. With support from locals to convict the Klan members, $10,000 was raised through public donations. They hired Reverdy Johnson and Henry Stanbery, former U.S. attorney generals, to assist the attorneys in the case. During all four trials, former slaves made up majority of the jurors and the other white jurors identified as republican and against the Klan; the jury was not in the Klan’s favor. Three of the men were given minor sentences based on their minor roles in the clan, but one of them, a prominent Klansman, was sentenced to five years in prison.
These trials were an important point in history, punishing the horrible discrimination against African Americans in the United States. Even so, violence and discrimination persisted and continue today.
For more information, please visit:
http://law.jrank.org/pages/2613/South-Carolina-Ku-Klux-Klan-Trials-1871-72-Trials-Begin.html
November 27, 1995: False Myth of the “Super-Predator”
Criminologists predict youth crime wave by “radically impulsive, brutally remorseless” black male “super-predators,” leading to laws that expose thousands of kids to adult prosecution. The Weekly Standard published an article by Princeton Professor John Dilulio where he predicted that there would be 27,000 violent youth in the U.S. by 2010. He attributed the cause of aggressive behavior among poor and minority youth to the growth rates in “moral poverty.”
The “super-predator” language became commonly used in relation to an increase in violent juvenile crime that was occurring or was about to occur. This language was racially coded, targeting minorities and the poor. This theory about a rise in violent juvenile crime led states the enact legislation mandating automatic adult prosecution for children. This legislation allowed life without parole sentences, the death penalty for children, and/or housing child offenders in adult prisons.
The “super-predator” myth was proved to be inaccurate. Juvenile crime rates from 1994 to 200 decreased. Reversing the policies enacted in response to this inaccurate theory have had success in the Supreme Court. Cases such as Graham v. Florida, Roper v. Simmons, and Miller v. Alabama have all reduced the harshness of sentences child offenders can be given.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1990s/
https://www.sutori.com/story/the-super-predator-myth-timeline--KdronneGhYEeaxHF75hUhFo7
https://www.weeklystandard.com/john-j-dilulio-jr/the-coming-of-the-super-predators
November 26, 1863: Thanksgiving Day Is Declared to Be An Annual Celebration
On November 26, 1863 President Abraham Lincoln Proclaims November 26 as national Thanksgiving Day, to be celebrated annually. Majority of American’s celebrate Thanksgiving, but not many know of the real harms done to the Native Americans that lead to this holiday. The story of thanksgiving is widely accepted as a time when the pilgrims and Wampanoag people came together to make peace and look past their differences; the key portion of the story missing however, is the cultural genocide that took place to get here.
Upon arrival, the pilgrims claimed land in North America that had originally and rightfully belonged to the Native Americans for centuries. In doing so, they forced many people out of the land and in the process destroyed their way of life and culture, forcing many of them to adopt western ideals. Since the pilgrims claimed America, it has been a long struggle for Native Americans as they have been completely stripped of their land and heritage. Many scholars acknowledge that a cultural genocide occurred, but it is not so widely known in the American public, and not properly taught to children learning about Thanksgiving and Native Americans. While thanksgiving is an important time to be with family and remember what we are thankful for, it is also an important time to recognize the harm done to many people in the past and the prejudice still occurring today.
For more information, please visit:
http://americanindiansource.com/mourningday.html
November 23, 2014: Tamir Rice Fatally Shot by Police Officers in Ohio
Tamir Rice, a 12-year-old boy, died the day after being shot by a white police officer in Cleveland, Ohio. He was playing in a park near his home when he was approached by a police car. Rice was then shot by officer Timothy Loehmann in the stomach. The officers were responding to a 911 dispatch where callers had reported that someone was playing with a gun in the park but also reported that the person was most likely a juvenile and the gun was probably fake. The gun that Rice was playing with was in fact fake.
Tamir’s sister rushed to his side after he was shot, she was then tackled by the police, placed in handcuffs, and held in the back of the police car. Tamir’s mother was threatened with arrest if she did not calm down and was prevented from going to her son. Neither officers attempted to preform life-saving procedures on Tamir.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/2010s/
www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2014/11/cleveland_police_officer_fatal.html
www.cnn.com/2014/12/12/justice/cleveland-tamir-rice/index.html
November 22, 1865: Mississippi Authorizes Sale of Black Orphans
After the Civil War, Southern State faced the task of rebuilding with the young white male population, which was reduced because of war, and due to emancipation, did not have the free labor once provided by slaves. In response, many Southern state passes race-specific laws to establish new forms of labor relations between black workers and white employers that complied with the law but was in essence a recreation of involuntary, master-slave relationships.
In Mississippi on this day of 1865, and act was passed which regulated the relation of master and apprentice. Under this law, law enforcement and other civil officers were required to identify all minor black children who were either orphans or whose parents were unfit to care for them. Once these children were identified, the local probate officer was required to apprentice them white masters until 18 for girls and 21 for boys. Masters were not required to pay the children but they did have to pay a fee to the county for the arrangement. This law also required masters to provide education, medical care, food, and clothing to their apprentices but it also re-established many notorious features of slavery.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 21, 1927: Supreme Court Upholds Law Banning Chinese Americans From White Schools
Mississippi adopted a law in 1890 after Reconstruction that divided children in to racial categories of Caucasian, brown, yellow, or black and mandated racially-segregated public education. In 1924, Martha Lum, a nine-year-old Chinese girl, was barred from attending Rosedale Consolidated High School in Bolivar County, Mississippi. This school was for white students only. Gong Lum, Martha’s father sued the state challenging his daughter’s classification of color, and the constitutionality of segregated education.
Eventually this case made it all the way to the Supreme Court where the Court ruled in favor of Mississippi’s power to force Martha to attend a colored school outside the district where she lived. The Court applied the “separate but equal” doctrine and held that the maintenance of separate schools based on race was within the constitutional power of the state legislature. Not allowing Martha to attend the local white school did not violate the 14th Amendment right because she was entitled to attend a colored school.
For more information please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1920s/
November 20, 1962: President Kennedy Orders End to discrimination in Federal Housing
President John F. Kennedy orders an end to racial discrimination in federally financed housing. Executive Order 11063 banned federally funded housing organizations from discriminating against individuals on the basis of race. At this time in history, there was rampant racial prejudice influencing loan decision of government-backed organizations and this order attempted to put an end to it. Organizations, such as the Federal Housing Administration, used a system called “red-lining” in order to flag riskiness of a mortgage based on race. As a result, black communities received the worst rating in terms of riskiness and loans were channeled away from these neighborhoods. African Americans found it hard to purchase homes because of this regardless of their financial situation.
Kennedy’s order was a symbolic step towards addressing racial discrimination in the U.S. but it did not have a big impact immediately. The order did not have a strong enforcement mechanism, allowing discriminatory practices to continue. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 included a mechanism of enforcement which allowed fair housing to be federally regulated.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
November 19, 1988: Texas Judges Gives A White Student Reduced Sentence for Killing Two Gay Men
A judge Dallas, Texas gives a reduced sentence to a white student for a targeted killing of two gay men, likening the victims to prostitutes and refusing to give somebody life for killing a prostitute. Richard Lee Bednarski was sentenced to 30 years in prison after murdering the two gay men. An interview with the judge, Judge Jack Hampton, was published after the sentencing. In this interview, Judge Hampton stated that he rejected the prosecution’s recommendation that Bednarski should serve life in prison because he believed that gays and prostitutes were on the same level and it would be hard to put a person away for a life sentence if their crime was killing a prostitute. Hampton blamed the victims for their deaths based on the reasoning that they would not have died if they had not been out trying to pick up teenage boys.
After this interview with the judge was published, the Texas Commission on Judicial Conduct investigated Judge Hampton and concluded that he was an impartial judge. This conclusion faced many complaints which resulted in the commission agreeing to censure the judge but refused to require he be removed from his position. Hampton went on to be re-elected in 1990 and 1994 before retiring in 1996. Bednarski was then released in 2007 from prison.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1980s/
https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/17/us/texas-judge-eases-sentence-for-killer-of-2-homosexuals.html
November 15th, 2010: After 45 Years, Former Police Officer Pleads Guilty to 1965 Murder
Former Police officer James Bonard Fowler pleads guilty to 1965 murder of civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson in Marion, Alabama, and is sentenced to six months in jail. On February 18th, 1965 Fowler and many other armed state troopers attacked a peaceful civil rights demonstration in Marion, Alabama. Jackson sought refuge from the police violence in a nearby café with loved ones. Fowler entered the café and shot Jackson multiple times. In September of ’65, a grand jury did not indict Fowler for the killing.
After confessing to shooting Jackson three times out of self-defense in a 2004 interview with The Anniston Star, District Attorney Michael Jackson reopened the case. Fowler was charged with murder in November of 2010 and pleaded guilty to misdemeanor manslaughter. He was sentenced to six months in jail and six months probation. Throughout the hearing, Fowler maintained his self-dense story.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/2010s/
www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/us/16fowler.html
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/40196577/ns/us_news-crime_and_courts/t/civil-rights-killing-case-ends-guilty-plea/#.W-HqWC_MxmA
November 14th, 1960: Ruby Bridges Integrates New Orleans Elementary School
Escorted by U.S. Marshals, six-year-old Ruby Bridges integrates William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Louisiana, as mobs protest outside. African American parents of students in New Orleans public schools sued the Orleans Parish School Boards in August of 1955 to challenge its failure to integrate schools in compliance with Brown v. Board of Education. In February of 1956, a U.S. District Court Judge ordered the school board to desegregate the city’s schools. For the next four years, lawmakers defied the judge’s order.
In May of 1960, the same judge issued a federal order for the gradual desegregation of New Orleans public schools, beginning with the first grade. In November of 1960, Ruby Bridges started first grade at William Frantz Elementary School, a previously all-white school. She had to be escorted through the mob of angry whites by four U.S. Marshals. Ruby and her teacher were the only two people in her assigned classroom for the whole year. White students who had been assigned to attend integrated schools had withdrawn their attendance.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ruby-bridges
www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/video/ruby-bridges-goes-to-school/
November 12th, 1866: Texas Legislature Authorizes Leasing of State Prisoners
Texas Legislature authorizes leasing of state prisoners to build railroads and work on other projects, to profit the state treasury. The Thirteenth Amendment’s clause allowing convicted criminals to be subject to conditions of forced labor targeted recently freed African Americans. Texas was one of many states to pass laws after the Civil War subjecting African Americans to discriminatory criminal laws. Texas passed and approved of the law entitled “An Act to provide for the employment of Convict labor on works of public utility.” This law made it legal for the state to employ or lease some prisoners to build railroads, work in mines, and staff iron foundries. This law disproportionately affected African American prisoners. Texas essentially recreated slavery within the boundaries of federal and state law.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 9th, 1866: Texas Legislature Authorizes Leasing of County Jail Inmates for Profit
Texas legislature authorized counties to employ jail inmates in public works and to lease them to private employers, with all profits going to county treasuries. Ratified in December 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery “except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.” The South had long relied on slavery to supply constant labor for agricultural work, which the regional economy relied on. The Thirteenth Amendment provision of enslavement for convicted felons allowed the South to continue to exploit labor.
This Texas law authorized county authorities to employ jail inmates in public works and/or lease them to private employers. These inmates were given a low wage of one dollar in which would be applied to any unpaid fines or costs owed to the county. The Texas legislature a few days later passed another law which authorized the leasing of state prisoners who were forced to work in dangerous and inhumane conditions.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 8th, 1889: Young Black Man Lynched in Virginia
A young black man was lynched in Leesburg, Virginia, for frightening a white girl by wearing a sack on his head. Orion Anderson, 18, was accused of attempting to rape and assault a white girl, Mary Leith, and was jailed. There were no witnesses to the incident and Leith could not identify her attacker. Anderson was taken from jail in Leesburg and was lynched by an angry mob. After the lynching, the mob rod through town on horseback, no one tried to apprehend them or claimed to recognize them. Anderson became Northern Virginia’s first recorded lynching. Between the years of 1882 and 1920, about 3,500 black Americans were lynched in the U.S.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1880s/racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1880s/
https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/crime-history-leesburg-teen-lynched-for-frightening-white-girl
November 7th, 1931: Fisk University Dean and Student Die after Georgia Hospital Refused to Treat Them
Fisk University dean and student die from injuries sustained in a car accident after segregated Georgia hospital refused to treat them. Dean Juliette Derricotte of Fisk University was driving three students home to her parents' house when a older white man swerved in his car and hit the dean and the students. The dean’s car was overturned and landed in a ditch. The man proceeded to yell at the black occupants for damaging his car and then left the scene. The dean and the students were denied admittance to the nearest hospital because the hospital did not accept black patients. Six hours after the accident, on their way to a Chattanooga hospital 35 miles away, the dean died from serious injuries and the next day one student died.
The Committee on Interracial Cooperation opened and investigation and the secretary of the New York-based NAACP, Walter White, traveled south in December in 1931 to learn more about the incident. White later concluded that race segregation in the South has shown its brutality and ugliness when it refused to treated well-respected black women who died due to a lack of hospital facilities for people of color.
For more information, please visit:
http://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1930s/
November 6: Impact of Election Day
November 6 is election day and every four years, it is the day that we elect a new president or re-elect the current president for a second term. Now on our 45th president, we have seen the ups and downs of many different presidencies.
On November 6, 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th American President. His role in the fight for the rights of African-Americans is a crucial piece of our history. In 1863 he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which freed more than 3 million slaves. In 1865 he pushed Congress to pass the 13th Amendment with the purpose of ending slavery.
On November 6, 2008 Barack Obama was elected the 44th American President, making him the first African-American president of the United States. During his time in office he notably supported same-sex marriage and passed the health care act.
From Abraham Lincoln to Donald Trump, the presidency plays a vital role in the way our country is shaped and how we progress. Although the president does not have supreme power, they still play an important role in the laws passed and our rights being protected. As such, it is our civic duty to vote.
For more information, please visit:
www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/
November 5th, 2010: Bay Ara Officer Sentenced to Two Years in Prison for Killing Oscar Grant
On November 5th, 2010 the Bay Ara Rapid Transit (BART) officer, who shot and killed a 22 year old, unarmed black man Oscar Grant, was sentenced to two years in prison. On January 1, 2009, Officer Johannes Mehserle and other officers responded to a fight at a BART station in the Bay Area. The officers on the scene detained Oscar Grant and other young black male passengers. Officer Mehserle held Oscar Grant face down on the ground and shot him in the back, killing him.
Hundreds of passengers witnessed the horrible incident and many recorded it with their cell phones. The videos were then posted for everyone to be able to see what truly happened. In the wake of his death, riots and civil unrest broke out over the absence of accountability for officers targeting and harming minorities. A week after the shooting, the officer was charged with murder but plead not guilty, claiming he had meant to use his stun gun. The jury convicted him of the lesser offense of involuntary manslaughter and On November 5, 2010 he was sentenced to two years in prison. Riots broke out after he received his lenient sentence. Even so, Mehserle only served less than two years and was released in June 2011. Although Mehserle was held accountable for the shooting, he was given a very short sentence for the amount of suffering he caused and the life he took.
For more information and a video of the incident, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/11-05/
November 1, 1831: Start of the Trail of Tears
On November 1, 1831 the Trail of Tears began. Following the passage of the Indian Removal Act on May 28,1830, which gave the president authority to negotiate treaties with tribes east of the Mississippi River and relocate them west. The Choctaws were the first tribe to sign the removal treaty, despite many being opposed to leaving. The government provided no means of transportation for their relocation and so on November 1, 1831 thousands of Choctaw people began their journey west by foot. Unprepared for the harsh winter conditions, nearly a third of the Choctaw nation died along the way.
In total, the United States government forcibly removed 90,000 people from their lands as a part of the removal campaign. The Choctaw along with the Chickasaws, Seminoles, Cherokees and Creeks faced harsh journeys west that lead to many of their deaths. This act violated the rights of Native Americans and denied them land that they had inhabited for many years before the United States had formed. The Trail of Tears took far too many lives and destroyed many tribes in the process. Today people still suffer the consequences of their removal from their rightful lands and are subjected to much more discrimination in our country.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/11-01/
On November 30, 1952 Jackie Robinson charges the New York Yankees with racism. Until the death of Kenesaw Landis in 1944, the U.S baseball commissioner highly opposed to integration, major leagues did not allow any black players. After his death, the Dogers’ president, Branch Rickey decided to desegregate the major leagues by hiring one black player, Jackie Robinson. He became the first African American to play in the major leagues and went on to become the first Black National League Most Valuable Player in 1949. During his time in the league he faced much opposition fueled with hate and racism from fans, opposing teams and even teammates, but still he never gave into it. Finally, on November 30, 1952 he spoke up on a local TV show, accusing the Yankee’s management of being racist for refusing to hire black players. Although the Yankees denied his accusation, they did not end up hiring any black players until 3 years later in 1955. After this and his time in the league, he went on to become more involved in civil rights causes, fighting for the equality of both players and people alike.
For more information, please visit:
https://player.fm/series/human-rights-a-day-1446196/november-30-1952-jackie-robinson
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jackie-robinson-breaks-major-league-color-barrier
November 29, 1975: President Gerald Ford Passes the Education for all Handicapped Children Act
On November 29, 1975 President Gerald Ford required states to provide free education for the handicapped through the passage of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act. In the wake of activism pushing for equal rights in the country, President Ford passed this act in an attempt to give children with disabilities equal opportunities in public schools. At the time, many schools had very limited obligations to these children and those with severe disabilities were kept out of public schools completely; those who did attend were segregated from their non-disabled peers. While the act promised many things, it did not work as well in practice. A few advances were made, but there was a lack of funding to actually implement much of what the act promised. Even so, the act was a step in the right direction to giving children equality in the education system.
For more information, please visit:
https://commons.trincoll.edu/edreform/2012/05/the-education-for-all-handicapped-children-act-a-faltering-step-towards-integration/
November 28, 1871: Ku Klux Klan trials began in the Federal District Court in South Carolina
On November 28, 1871 Ku Klux Klan trials began in the Federal District Court in South Carolina. 220 Klansmen were indicted, but only 5 of them were prosecuted for conspiracy to prevent “male citizens of the United States of African descent” from voting in the 1972 election. They attempted to stop 3 black men from voting in the election by threatening and intimidating them before they got to the polls.
There were four trials held, spanning over the course of a month. The initial trials were held before the U.S. Circuit Court in Columbia. With support from locals to convict the Klan members, $10,000 was raised through public donations. They hired Reverdy Johnson and Henry Stanbery, former U.S. attorney generals, to assist the attorneys in the case. During all four trials, former slaves made up majority of the jurors and the other white jurors identified as republican and against the Klan; the jury was not in the Klan’s favor. Three of the men were given minor sentences based on their minor roles in the clan, but one of them, a prominent Klansman, was sentenced to five years in prison.
These trials were an important point in history, punishing the horrible discrimination against African Americans in the United States. Even so, violence and discrimination persisted and continue today.
For more information, please visit:
http://law.jrank.org/pages/2613/South-Carolina-Ku-Klux-Klan-Trials-1871-72-Trials-Begin.html
November 27, 1995: False Myth of the “Super-Predator”
Criminologists predict youth crime wave by “radically impulsive, brutally remorseless” black male “super-predators,” leading to laws that expose thousands of kids to adult prosecution. The Weekly Standard published an article by Princeton Professor John Dilulio where he predicted that there would be 27,000 violent youth in the U.S. by 2010. He attributed the cause of aggressive behavior among poor and minority youth to the growth rates in “moral poverty.”
The “super-predator” language became commonly used in relation to an increase in violent juvenile crime that was occurring or was about to occur. This language was racially coded, targeting minorities and the poor. This theory about a rise in violent juvenile crime led states the enact legislation mandating automatic adult prosecution for children. This legislation allowed life without parole sentences, the death penalty for children, and/or housing child offenders in adult prisons.
The “super-predator” myth was proved to be inaccurate. Juvenile crime rates from 1994 to 200 decreased. Reversing the policies enacted in response to this inaccurate theory have had success in the Supreme Court. Cases such as Graham v. Florida, Roper v. Simmons, and Miller v. Alabama have all reduced the harshness of sentences child offenders can be given.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1990s/
https://www.sutori.com/story/the-super-predator-myth-timeline--KdronneGhYEeaxHF75hUhFo7
https://www.weeklystandard.com/john-j-dilulio-jr/the-coming-of-the-super-predators
November 26, 1863: Thanksgiving Day Is Declared to Be An Annual Celebration
On November 26, 1863 President Abraham Lincoln Proclaims November 26 as national Thanksgiving Day, to be celebrated annually. Majority of American’s celebrate Thanksgiving, but not many know of the real harms done to the Native Americans that lead to this holiday. The story of thanksgiving is widely accepted as a time when the pilgrims and Wampanoag people came together to make peace and look past their differences; the key portion of the story missing however, is the cultural genocide that took place to get here.
Upon arrival, the pilgrims claimed land in North America that had originally and rightfully belonged to the Native Americans for centuries. In doing so, they forced many people out of the land and in the process destroyed their way of life and culture, forcing many of them to adopt western ideals. Since the pilgrims claimed America, it has been a long struggle for Native Americans as they have been completely stripped of their land and heritage. Many scholars acknowledge that a cultural genocide occurred, but it is not so widely known in the American public, and not properly taught to children learning about Thanksgiving and Native Americans. While thanksgiving is an important time to be with family and remember what we are thankful for, it is also an important time to recognize the harm done to many people in the past and the prejudice still occurring today.
For more information, please visit:
http://americanindiansource.com/mourningday.html
November 23, 2014: Tamir Rice Fatally Shot by Police Officers in Ohio
Tamir Rice, a 12-year-old boy, died the day after being shot by a white police officer in Cleveland, Ohio. He was playing in a park near his home when he was approached by a police car. Rice was then shot by officer Timothy Loehmann in the stomach. The officers were responding to a 911 dispatch where callers had reported that someone was playing with a gun in the park but also reported that the person was most likely a juvenile and the gun was probably fake. The gun that Rice was playing with was in fact fake.
Tamir’s sister rushed to his side after he was shot, she was then tackled by the police, placed in handcuffs, and held in the back of the police car. Tamir’s mother was threatened with arrest if she did not calm down and was prevented from going to her son. Neither officers attempted to preform life-saving procedures on Tamir.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/2010s/
www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2014/11/cleveland_police_officer_fatal.html
www.cnn.com/2014/12/12/justice/cleveland-tamir-rice/index.html
November 22, 1865: Mississippi Authorizes Sale of Black Orphans
After the Civil War, Southern State faced the task of rebuilding with the young white male population, which was reduced because of war, and due to emancipation, did not have the free labor once provided by slaves. In response, many Southern state passes race-specific laws to establish new forms of labor relations between black workers and white employers that complied with the law but was in essence a recreation of involuntary, master-slave relationships.
In Mississippi on this day of 1865, and act was passed which regulated the relation of master and apprentice. Under this law, law enforcement and other civil officers were required to identify all minor black children who were either orphans or whose parents were unfit to care for them. Once these children were identified, the local probate officer was required to apprentice them white masters until 18 for girls and 21 for boys. Masters were not required to pay the children but they did have to pay a fee to the county for the arrangement. This law also required masters to provide education, medical care, food, and clothing to their apprentices but it also re-established many notorious features of slavery.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 21, 1927: Supreme Court Upholds Law Banning Chinese Americans From White Schools
Mississippi adopted a law in 1890 after Reconstruction that divided children in to racial categories of Caucasian, brown, yellow, or black and mandated racially-segregated public education. In 1924, Martha Lum, a nine-year-old Chinese girl, was barred from attending Rosedale Consolidated High School in Bolivar County, Mississippi. This school was for white students only. Gong Lum, Martha’s father sued the state challenging his daughter’s classification of color, and the constitutionality of segregated education.
Eventually this case made it all the way to the Supreme Court where the Court ruled in favor of Mississippi’s power to force Martha to attend a colored school outside the district where she lived. The Court applied the “separate but equal” doctrine and held that the maintenance of separate schools based on race was within the constitutional power of the state legislature. Not allowing Martha to attend the local white school did not violate the 14th Amendment right because she was entitled to attend a colored school.
For more information please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1920s/
November 20, 1962: President Kennedy Orders End to discrimination in Federal Housing
President John F. Kennedy orders an end to racial discrimination in federally financed housing. Executive Order 11063 banned federally funded housing organizations from discriminating against individuals on the basis of race. At this time in history, there was rampant racial prejudice influencing loan decision of government-backed organizations and this order attempted to put an end to it. Organizations, such as the Federal Housing Administration, used a system called “red-lining” in order to flag riskiness of a mortgage based on race. As a result, black communities received the worst rating in terms of riskiness and loans were channeled away from these neighborhoods. African Americans found it hard to purchase homes because of this regardless of their financial situation.
Kennedy’s order was a symbolic step towards addressing racial discrimination in the U.S. but it did not have a big impact immediately. The order did not have a strong enforcement mechanism, allowing discriminatory practices to continue. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 included a mechanism of enforcement which allowed fair housing to be federally regulated.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
November 19, 1988: Texas Judges Gives A White Student Reduced Sentence for Killing Two Gay Men
A judge Dallas, Texas gives a reduced sentence to a white student for a targeted killing of two gay men, likening the victims to prostitutes and refusing to give somebody life for killing a prostitute. Richard Lee Bednarski was sentenced to 30 years in prison after murdering the two gay men. An interview with the judge, Judge Jack Hampton, was published after the sentencing. In this interview, Judge Hampton stated that he rejected the prosecution’s recommendation that Bednarski should serve life in prison because he believed that gays and prostitutes were on the same level and it would be hard to put a person away for a life sentence if their crime was killing a prostitute. Hampton blamed the victims for their deaths based on the reasoning that they would not have died if they had not been out trying to pick up teenage boys.
After this interview with the judge was published, the Texas Commission on Judicial Conduct investigated Judge Hampton and concluded that he was an impartial judge. This conclusion faced many complaints which resulted in the commission agreeing to censure the judge but refused to require he be removed from his position. Hampton went on to be re-elected in 1990 and 1994 before retiring in 1996. Bednarski was then released in 2007 from prison.
For more information please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1980s/
https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/17/us/texas-judge-eases-sentence-for-killer-of-2-homosexuals.html
November 15th, 2010: After 45 Years, Former Police Officer Pleads Guilty to 1965 Murder
Former Police officer James Bonard Fowler pleads guilty to 1965 murder of civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson in Marion, Alabama, and is sentenced to six months in jail. On February 18th, 1965 Fowler and many other armed state troopers attacked a peaceful civil rights demonstration in Marion, Alabama. Jackson sought refuge from the police violence in a nearby café with loved ones. Fowler entered the café and shot Jackson multiple times. In September of ’65, a grand jury did not indict Fowler for the killing.
After confessing to shooting Jackson three times out of self-defense in a 2004 interview with The Anniston Star, District Attorney Michael Jackson reopened the case. Fowler was charged with murder in November of 2010 and pleaded guilty to misdemeanor manslaughter. He was sentenced to six months in jail and six months probation. Throughout the hearing, Fowler maintained his self-dense story.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/2010s/
www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/us/16fowler.html
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/40196577/ns/us_news-crime_and_courts/t/civil-rights-killing-case-ends-guilty-plea/#.W-HqWC_MxmA
November 14th, 1960: Ruby Bridges Integrates New Orleans Elementary School
Escorted by U.S. Marshals, six-year-old Ruby Bridges integrates William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Louisiana, as mobs protest outside. African American parents of students in New Orleans public schools sued the Orleans Parish School Boards in August of 1955 to challenge its failure to integrate schools in compliance with Brown v. Board of Education. In February of 1956, a U.S. District Court Judge ordered the school board to desegregate the city’s schools. For the next four years, lawmakers defied the judge’s order.
In May of 1960, the same judge issued a federal order for the gradual desegregation of New Orleans public schools, beginning with the first grade. In November of 1960, Ruby Bridges started first grade at William Frantz Elementary School, a previously all-white school. She had to be escorted through the mob of angry whites by four U.S. Marshals. Ruby and her teacher were the only two people in her assigned classroom for the whole year. White students who had been assigned to attend integrated schools had withdrawn their attendance.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1960s/
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ruby-bridges
www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/video/ruby-bridges-goes-to-school/
November 12th, 1866: Texas Legislature Authorizes Leasing of State Prisoners
Texas Legislature authorizes leasing of state prisoners to build railroads and work on other projects, to profit the state treasury. The Thirteenth Amendment’s clause allowing convicted criminals to be subject to conditions of forced labor targeted recently freed African Americans. Texas was one of many states to pass laws after the Civil War subjecting African Americans to discriminatory criminal laws. Texas passed and approved of the law entitled “An Act to provide for the employment of Convict labor on works of public utility.” This law made it legal for the state to employ or lease some prisoners to build railroads, work in mines, and staff iron foundries. This law disproportionately affected African American prisoners. Texas essentially recreated slavery within the boundaries of federal and state law.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 9th, 1866: Texas Legislature Authorizes Leasing of County Jail Inmates for Profit
Texas legislature authorized counties to employ jail inmates in public works and to lease them to private employers, with all profits going to county treasuries. Ratified in December 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery “except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.” The South had long relied on slavery to supply constant labor for agricultural work, which the regional economy relied on. The Thirteenth Amendment provision of enslavement for convicted felons allowed the South to continue to exploit labor.
This Texas law authorized county authorities to employ jail inmates in public works and/or lease them to private employers. These inmates were given a low wage of one dollar in which would be applied to any unpaid fines or costs owed to the county. The Texas legislature a few days later passed another law which authorized the leasing of state prisoners who were forced to work in dangerous and inhumane conditions.
For more information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1860s/
November 8th, 1889: Young Black Man Lynched in Virginia
A young black man was lynched in Leesburg, Virginia, for frightening a white girl by wearing a sack on his head. Orion Anderson, 18, was accused of attempting to rape and assault a white girl, Mary Leith, and was jailed. There were no witnesses to the incident and Leith could not identify her attacker. Anderson was taken from jail in Leesburg and was lynched by an angry mob. After the lynching, the mob rod through town on horseback, no one tried to apprehend them or claimed to recognize them. Anderson became Northern Virginia’s first recorded lynching. Between the years of 1882 and 1920, about 3,500 black Americans were lynched in the U.S.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1880s/racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1880s/
https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/crime-history-leesburg-teen-lynched-for-frightening-white-girl
November 7th, 1931: Fisk University Dean and Student Die after Georgia Hospital Refused to Treat Them
Fisk University dean and student die from injuries sustained in a car accident after segregated Georgia hospital refused to treat them. Dean Juliette Derricotte of Fisk University was driving three students home to her parents' house when a older white man swerved in his car and hit the dean and the students. The dean’s car was overturned and landed in a ditch. The man proceeded to yell at the black occupants for damaging his car and then left the scene. The dean and the students were denied admittance to the nearest hospital because the hospital did not accept black patients. Six hours after the accident, on their way to a Chattanooga hospital 35 miles away, the dean died from serious injuries and the next day one student died.
The Committee on Interracial Cooperation opened and investigation and the secretary of the New York-based NAACP, Walter White, traveled south in December in 1931 to learn more about the incident. White later concluded that race segregation in the South has shown its brutality and ugliness when it refused to treated well-respected black women who died due to a lack of hospital facilities for people of color.
For more information, please visit:
http://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1930s/
November 6: Impact of Election Day
November 6 is election day and every four years, it is the day that we elect a new president or re-elect the current president for a second term. Now on our 45th president, we have seen the ups and downs of many different presidencies.
On November 6, 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th American President. His role in the fight for the rights of African-Americans is a crucial piece of our history. In 1863 he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which freed more than 3 million slaves. In 1865 he pushed Congress to pass the 13th Amendment with the purpose of ending slavery.
On November 6, 2008 Barack Obama was elected the 44th American President, making him the first African-American president of the United States. During his time in office he notably supported same-sex marriage and passed the health care act.
From Abraham Lincoln to Donald Trump, the presidency plays a vital role in the way our country is shaped and how we progress. Although the president does not have supreme power, they still play an important role in the laws passed and our rights being protected. As such, it is our civic duty to vote.
For more information, please visit:
www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/
November 5th, 2010: Bay Ara Officer Sentenced to Two Years in Prison for Killing Oscar Grant
On November 5th, 2010 the Bay Ara Rapid Transit (BART) officer, who shot and killed a 22 year old, unarmed black man Oscar Grant, was sentenced to two years in prison. On January 1, 2009, Officer Johannes Mehserle and other officers responded to a fight at a BART station in the Bay Area. The officers on the scene detained Oscar Grant and other young black male passengers. Officer Mehserle held Oscar Grant face down on the ground and shot him in the back, killing him.
Hundreds of passengers witnessed the horrible incident and many recorded it with their cell phones. The videos were then posted for everyone to be able to see what truly happened. In the wake of his death, riots and civil unrest broke out over the absence of accountability for officers targeting and harming minorities. A week after the shooting, the officer was charged with murder but plead not guilty, claiming he had meant to use his stun gun. The jury convicted him of the lesser offense of involuntary manslaughter and On November 5, 2010 he was sentenced to two years in prison. Riots broke out after he received his lenient sentence. Even so, Mehserle only served less than two years and was released in June 2011. Although Mehserle was held accountable for the shooting, he was given a very short sentence for the amount of suffering he caused and the life he took.
For more information and a video of the incident, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/11-05/
November 1, 1831: Start of the Trail of Tears
On November 1, 1831 the Trail of Tears began. Following the passage of the Indian Removal Act on May 28,1830, which gave the president authority to negotiate treaties with tribes east of the Mississippi River and relocate them west. The Choctaws were the first tribe to sign the removal treaty, despite many being opposed to leaving. The government provided no means of transportation for their relocation and so on November 1, 1831 thousands of Choctaw people began their journey west by foot. Unprepared for the harsh winter conditions, nearly a third of the Choctaw nation died along the way.
In total, the United States government forcibly removed 90,000 people from their lands as a part of the removal campaign. The Choctaw along with the Chickasaws, Seminoles, Cherokees and Creeks faced harsh journeys west that lead to many of their deaths. This act violated the rights of Native Americans and denied them land that they had inhabited for many years before the United States had formed. The Trail of Tears took far too many lives and destroyed many tribes in the process. Today people still suffer the consequences of their removal from their rightful lands and are subjected to much more discrimination in our country.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/11-01/
OCTOBER 2018
October 30, 1954: US Defense Department Elimination All Racially Segregated Regiments in the Army
On October 30, 1954 the US Defense Department announces the elimination of all racially segregated regiments. To this point, African-Americans had participated in every war the United States had fought in. Even when not enlisted or given any rights, African-American slaves helped right in the revolutionary war to win the colonies freedom. Again African-Americans were ordered to fight in the War of 1812 still not able to be enlisted in the army officially. In 1862, the U.S. outlawed the 1792 law that prohibited black enlistment in the army. Although there was no longer a law against enlistment, blacks could still were not considered equal in the eyes of the law and the army. Segregated units continued through the Mexican War, the Civil War, the Indian Wars, the Spanish American War, and World War I. It was not until the end of World War II that the army began to slowly integrate some units. After World War II had ended, racism persisted and African-American veterans became subject to horrible violence. In an effort to stop this, President Truman sent civil rights reforms to congress and in it, he ordered the desegregation of the army. It was not until the end of the Korean was in 1954 that the army became almost completely desegregated.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3982.html
October 26th, 1866: Texas Law Passed Limiting the Rights of Black People to Testify in Court
Texas passes law providing that black people cannot testify in court unless the defendant is black or the crime charged was committed against a black person. This law came after the Civil War and the defeat of the Confederacy. In order to be readmitted to the Union, states were required to alter laws and the constitutions to reflect the new status of black Americans as citizens with civil rights. As an effort to limit the rights of black Americans, Texas passed this law in order to limit the circumstances for which a black American could testify in court. This gave black Americans some rights while still keeping them second-class citizens.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-26/racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-26/
October 25th, 1669: Virginia Legislature Passes New Slave Law
Virginia legislature this week passes law declaring that slave masters shall not be criminally charged when they kill enslaved people who resist authority. This law ensured that if a master, mistress or overseer cannot be charged for murder if a slave dies during a correction of the slave’s transgression. This law was enacted at the end of a series of laws passed in Virginia during the 1660s. These laws enacted by Virginia were put into place in order to protect the rights and actions of slave owners. This law passed by Virginia can be traced back to the beginnings of slavery in the oppression and the unjust treatment of people of color in the U.S. which millions of Americans profited from.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/24-sla.html https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/slavery/experience/living/docs1.html https://eji.org/racial-justice/evolution-slavery
October 24th, 2012: Mississippi Sued for Incarcerating Children for Non-Criminal Violations of School Rules:
On October 24th, 2012 the United States Department of Justice filed a civil rights lawsuit against Mississippi, the Meridian Police department, the State of Mississippi, and city and state officials. To this point, the city had been incarcerating children for non-criminal violations of school rules. Not only does this count as cruel and unusual punishment, but also violated the rights of youth in being protected from such incarceration. In the event of student misconduct in the schools, they would immediately rely on the Meridian Police Department. The police would then arrest students without probable cause. Some of the violations were farting in class, being out of dress code or wearing the wrong colored socks. These very minor infractions of school policy gave children an unreasonable prison sentence. In addition, they were not given any due process rights with no legal representation, not being read their Miranda rights, and being incarcerated for days without a hearing. The practices carried out by the Meridian School district were not only cruel and unusual, but also specifically targeted children of color and with disabilities.
In 2012, they issued the federal investigation and it concluded that these practices were severe and had a disparate impact on students of color and students with disabilities. It was not until March 2013 that the Justice Department settled another lawsuit that limited the use of law enforcement in school discipline. The 2012 case is still pending however.
Although many may be lead to believe that desegregation practices ended after Brown v. the Board of Education, there are still many disparities still in place today in the United States. A case such as this seems unheard of today, but yet it was only 6 years ago that this was occurring and harming our youth.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-24/
October 23, 1969: 15 Years Post Brown V. Board of Education, Mississippi is Ordered to Desegregate Schools
On October 23, 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Mississippi to desegregate schools. This occurred 15 years after Brown v. Board of Education had ruled that separate, but equal was in fact not constitutional in 1954. Although the court had ruled to desegregate schools, many school districts failed to actually comply. Instead of desegregating schools, they simply adopted new rules that were in technical compliance with the Supreme Court, but not the genuine nature of the ruling.
In an effort to get schools to desegregate, the Court passed legislation that granted extra funding to schools that did integrate their schools. However, after 15 years, the public schools in Holmes County, Mississippi had still done nothing to integrate. In the case Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, they school district challenged the desegregation by arguing that they were entitled to take as long as they wanted to integrate based on “all deliberate speed” stated in Brown. On October 23, 1969 is when the Supreme Court finally heard the argument in Alexander and rejected the school’s claim, ordering them to end the dual school system at once. This case exemplifies the deep rooted opposition to integrated that plagued the South for many years despite official desegregation laws.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-23/
October 19, 1960: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Participated in a Lunch Counter Sit-In
Martin Luther King Jr. joined a sit-in protest in a department store in downtown Atlanta, Georgia. He was arrested with 51 other people for attempting to desegregate the cities' stores and restaurants. At this time, strict segregation laws were in place in Atlanta that separated black people. They were prevented from using the same water fountains, bathrooms, and ticket booths as whites. Laws also banned black people from being served at store lunch counters. The sit-in movement sought to change these unjust laws. Students would peacefully sit at segregated lunch counters and refuse to leave until they were served. Dr. King joined the students at a sit-in at Rich's, a local department store. He was arrested alongside the 300 students when they refused to leave. The students were later released for the misdemeanor, but Dr. King was held for four months based on violating his parole. President John F. Kennedy helped grant his release during his campaign.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-19/
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/sit-ins
October 18, 1775: Phillis Wheatley is Freed and Goes on to Become the First Black Woman to Publish a Poetry Book
On October 18, 1775, Phillis Wheatley was released from slavery and went on to become the first black woman, and second woman to publish a poetry book. Phillis Wheatley was born in 1753, in West Africa and brought to New England in 1761. John Wheatley then purchased her as a gift for his wife; she became their household slave, but during this time, they helped educate her in English as well as studies in Latin, Greek, the Bible and selected classics. With inspiration from English poets such as John Milton and Thomas Gray, she began to write poetry at age 13. She went on to become nationally acclaimed for her poem, “On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield” which was published as a broadside in Boston, New York and Philadelphia. She also traveled to London in 1771 and in 1773 she had 39 of her poems published as Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. One of the many topics she touched on through her poems was race.
Once she was freed in 1775, she began supporting herself as a seamstress and poet. She also wrote a letter to George Washington to show her support and he then proceeded to invite her to visit him in Cambridge, stating that he would be “happy to see a person so favored by the muses.” Phillis Wheatley’s poems are still widely studied and praised today. In fact, a few years ago some of her poems that were thought to have been lost were discovered.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/phillis-wheatley
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/phillis-wheatley
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/phillis-wheatley
October 17, 1871: President Grant Declares Martial Law in South Carolina due to Klan Violence
On October 17, 1871, President Grant declared martial law and eliminated the writ of habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties to combat KKK violence. These actions meant that those who perpetrated racial terrorism could be imprisoned without a trial. President Grant was forced to implement such measures because racial violence was extremely prevalent in these South Carolina counties and nothing was being done to stop it. Specifically, when juries were convened to try perpetrators of racial terrorism, the juries would not hold the perpetrators accountable. Grant demonstrated that the federal government could and would intervene to stop racial terrorism in states. Following President Grant’s actions, many klansmen were arrested and tried for their violent actions. After President Grant’s implementation of martial law and elimination of habeas corpus, KKK terrorism ultimately declined in the South Carolina.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-17/
https://millercenter.org/president/grant/domestic-affairs
October 16, 1968: Olympic Athletes Display Black Power Salute to Protest Racism
On October 16, 1968, Olympic athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos displayed the black power salute on the Olympics podium during the National Anthem. After Smith was presented with the gold medal and Carlos was presented with the bronze medal for the 200 meter track race, they executed their protest. The two planned the protest in advance to bring attention to various problems that black communities in the United States faced. For example, they protested lynchings by wearing beads and scarves. They also protested black poverty by taking off their shoes. Carlos specifically covered up where his uniform read “USA” because he wanted to “reflect the shame I felt that my country was traveling at a snail’s pace toward something that should be obvious to all people of good will” (Carlos, The Washington Post). As the National Anthem played, the two men raised their fists in the air while lowering their heads. Their actions drew national outrage. People were enraged by the fact that the two athletes protested during the National Anthem. Smith and Carlos were removed from the Olympics stadium and the American track team. The two also received death threats. Smith reflected on the protest when claiming “There was nothing but a raised fist in the air and a bowed head, acknowledging the American flag — not symbolizing a hatred for it” (Smith, The Washington Post).
The protest by Tommie Smith and John Carlos has many parallels with that of Colin Kaepernick and other football players who kneel during the National Anthem to protest police brutality. Kaepernick began the movement of protesting police brutality and racism during the National Anthem in the NFL by taking a knee. Like Smith and Carlos, people deemed Kaepernick to be unpatriotic and hated him for daring to protest during the National Anthem. As a result, Kaepernick no longer plays for the San Francisco 49ers, his longtime team, and has remained a free agent ever since he left the team. The similarities between the experiences of Smith, Carlos and Kaepernick are astonishing. When Smith protested, he knew that he was risking his future career. He was moved to see Kaepernick do the same, knowing that he was jeopardizing his ability to play the sport he loves to protest racism. In fact, Smith recognizes the similarities between his own protest and that of Kaepernick so strongly that Kaepernick’s protests brought him to tears.
Ultimately, the act of peacefully protesting racism through sports, sparked by Tommie Smith and John Carlos, persists and is still incredibly important today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/09/24/they-didnt-takeaknee-the-black-power-protest-salute-that-shook-the-world-in-1968/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.169adc6b7f75
https://www.bbc.com/sport/american-football/45824031
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/taking-a-knee-national-anthem-nfl-trump-why-meaning-origins-racism-us-colin-kaepernick-a8521741.html
https://www.biography.com/people/colin-kaepernick-21132801
October 15, 2017: Beginning of the “Me Too” Movement
On October 15, 2017, actress Alyssa Milano sparked the “Me Too” movement, which was designed to show how large the problem of sexual harassment and assault is. Milano started this movement by responding to a message from her friend stating “‘If all the women who have been sexually harassed or assaulted wrote ‘Me Too.’ as a status, we might give people a sense of the magnitude of the problem.’” Milano encouraged people who have been sexually harassed or assaulted to respond to her tweet with “me too.” The tweet itself received thousands or replies and the phrase “Me Too” has become symbolic of surviving sexual harassment or assault.
Since this movement began, many men in positions of power have been accused of sexual misconduct. These men include Harvey Weinstein, a producer, Kevin Spacey, an actor, Les Moonves, CEO of CBS, and our newest United States Supreme Court Justice, Brett Kavanaugh. All of these men, except Kavanaugh, were held accountable for their actions and fired from their jobs. Kavanaugh, on the other hand, was promoted to have a seat on the United States Supreme Court after he was accused of sexual assault.
The “Me Too” movement has drawn necessary attention to the issues of sexual harassment and assault. While the movement has done a fantastic job of holding men in power who have committed sexual misconduct accountable, there are many who have committed these acts and have not been held accountable. Ultimately, the “Me Too” movement is a great and important start to achieving justice for survivors of sexual harassment and assault.
For more information, please visit:
https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2017%2Fdec%2F01%2Falyssa-milano-mee-too-sexual-harassment-abuse
http://time.com/5015204/harvey-weinstein-scandal/
https://www.cnn.com/politics/live-news/kavanaugh-fbi-investigation-oct-18/index.html
October 10, 1871: Black Activist, Octavius Catto, Murdered
On October 10, 1871, Octavius Catto, an outspoken activist for desegregation and black voting rights was murdered by a member of a white group whose goal was to prevent black people from voting. Catto was an excellent student who graduated at the top of his class at the Institute for Colored Youth. He went on to become a teacher at the Institute for Colored Youth and a corresponding secretary for the Banneker Institute, a society of black intellectual elites in Philadelphia. He eventually became the highest paid teacher in all of Philadelphia. Catto strongly advocated for educating the black population. His advocacy lead him to serve as a corresponding secretary for Pennsylvania’s State Equal Rights League, a group dedicated to achieving equal rights for black people in many realms. His involvement in politics deepened, which lead to white people targeting him in a malicious and racist manner. Catto was shot and killed in the middle of the street by a racist white person in front of many spectators.
Catto’s funeral drew attention at the national level, with visitors from several states in attendance. His grave reads “The Forgotten Hero” because his name is typically not the first that individuals think of regarding the fight for racial equality. However, he has become more well recognized over time. In 2017, a statue of Catto was unveiled in front of Philadelphia’s City Hall, becoming the first public monument dedicated to a specific black person in the city’s history. Co-chair of the Catto Memorial Fund, James B. Straw, stated "This is a story about Philadelphia and a view into our history that has been largely ignored.” Octavius Catto’s story is now much more well known and his legacy is celebrated on a larger scale.
For more information, please visit:
http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/murder-of-octavius-catto/#29901
https://exhibits.library.villanova.edu/institute-colored-youth/graduates/ov-catto/
http://www2.philly.com/philly/entertainment/arts/a-monument-at-last-for-octavius-catto-the-activist-who-changed-philadelphia-20170925.html
October 9, 2012: Female Education Activist, Malala Yousafzai, Shot in the Head by the Taliban
On October 9, 2012, 15 year-old Malala Yousafzai was shot in the head three times by a Taliban gunman for attempting to attend school. The Taliban had threatened schools that allowed girls to be educated, but Malala refused to stop attending school. She desired a life outside of working in the home and knew that education was the way to achieve such a life. Malala was an outspoken advocate for women’s education; she posted anonymousy on a blog and also appeared on television regarding the issue. Her activism infuriated the Taliban, leading them to shoot her while she was on the bus on her way home from school.
After enduring many surgeries and a lengthy rehabilitation process, Malala luckily survived. Today, she continues to advocate for female education. In December of 2014, she was presented with the Nobel Peace Prize and became the youngest person to ever receive the award. She is now studying Philosophy, Politics and Economics at the University of Oxford. Malala Yousafzai is now a symbol of the global struggle for women’s equality.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24379018
https://www.malala.org/malalas-story
October 5, 1953: Earl Warren Becomes the 14th Chief Justice Making Many Landmark Decisions for Civil Rights
On October 5, 1953 Earl Warren was sworn in as the 14th chief justice of the United States. During his time as chief justice, the court was known as the Warren Court. The Warren Court is best known for making landmark decisions for civil rights.
The Warren Court decided many cases that shifted the wave of focus towards civil rights in the United States. The best known case, Brown v. the Board of Education, banned the segregation of public schools. This landmark case shifted the Court’s and the nations priorities from property rights to issues of civil liberties. Also under the Warren court, Gideon v. Wainwright declared the right of all criminal defendants to receive publicly funded counsel; Miranda v. Arizona established the rights of a person in police custody to be informed of their rights; Mapp v. Ohio, prevented prosecutors from using illegally obtained evidence in court. Justice Earl Warren retired in June 1969, but his legacy still carries on today.
For more information, please visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Warren#U.S._Supreme_Court
October 3, 1922: Supreme Court Rules in Favor of a Law Banning Japanese Immigrants from Becoming American Citizens
On October 3, 1922, the Supreme Court heard the argument in Ozama v. United States, a case which unanimously upholds law banning Japanese immigrants from becoming American Citizens. This landmark case encouraged the anti-Japanese sentiment among the American population and set the stage for the Immigration Act of 1924, which barred all immigration form Japan. It was not until 1952 that Japanese immigrants were allowed to naturalize under the McCarren-Walter Act of 1952.
Although this landmark case was nearly 100 years ago the impact it had on the American population lasted much longer than the decision lasted. During World War II, many Japanese Americans were held in internment camps, despite their legal status as American citizens. So although the case was quite some time ago, its impacts on the lives of Japanese Americans were seen for many years following.
For more information, please visit:
http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Ozawa_v._United_States/
October 2, 1967: Thurgood Marshall Sworn in as the First Black Supreme Court Justice
October 2, 1967, Thurgood Marshall was sworn in as the first black Supreme Court Justice. A grandson of a slave, Thurgood Marhsall’s father instilled in him an appreciation for the Constitution and rule of law from a very young age. He attended Lincoln University in Chester County, graduating cum laude and later applied to the University of Maryland Law school in 1930; he was denied entry however because he was black. He then was admitted to Howard University Law School later that year.
Post-graduation, he became the Chief Counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He also was asked by the United Nations and the United Kingdom to help draft the constitutions for the emerging African Nations of Ghana and Tanzania. In 1961 he was appointed to the U.S Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; during this time he wrote over 150 decisions, many of which involved immigrant rights, privacy issues and double jeopardy. In 1965 he was appointed to the office of U.S Solicitor General by President Johnson, where he won 14 out of the 19 cases he argued before the Supreme Court, marking him as winning more cases before the Supreme Court than any other American. Finally, in 1967 he became the first African American man on the Supreme Court, where he served until 1991.
Thurgood Marshall’s nomination to the Supreme Court stands as a great advancement for the fight for civil rights. As an African American man, growing up in the face of racism and prejudice, his many accomplishments prove his determination and dedication to change.
For more information, please visit:
http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/marshall.htm
October 1, 1964: UC Berkeley Begins the Free Speech Movement
On October 1, 1964 the Free Speech Movement began at the University of California Berkeley. This movement was the fight of students demanding their academic freedom and free speech to be recognized on campus. Inspired by the struggle for civil rights, the movement began with students at the university protesting bans on on-campus political activities. The leader of the movement was a student at the university, Mario Savio. Him along with several other important leaders, led students in protests between 1964-1965 on the Berkeley campus. Thousands of students participated in the movement and helped spark of wave of student activism on college campuses.
One key event to note from the movement was when a graduate student set up a table with political information and was then arrested. In protest to his arrest, 3,000 students surrounded the police car for 36 hours. This occurrence proved the power and resilience of the students in fighting for their voices to be heard and their freedom of speech to be protected on campus.
For more information, please visit:
https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/43/the-free-speech-movement/
On October 30, 1954 the US Defense Department announces the elimination of all racially segregated regiments. To this point, African-Americans had participated in every war the United States had fought in. Even when not enlisted or given any rights, African-American slaves helped right in the revolutionary war to win the colonies freedom. Again African-Americans were ordered to fight in the War of 1812 still not able to be enlisted in the army officially. In 1862, the U.S. outlawed the 1792 law that prohibited black enlistment in the army. Although there was no longer a law against enlistment, blacks could still were not considered equal in the eyes of the law and the army. Segregated units continued through the Mexican War, the Civil War, the Indian Wars, the Spanish American War, and World War I. It was not until the end of World War II that the army began to slowly integrate some units. After World War II had ended, racism persisted and African-American veterans became subject to horrible violence. In an effort to stop this, President Truman sent civil rights reforms to congress and in it, he ordered the desegregation of the army. It was not until the end of the Korean was in 1954 that the army became almost completely desegregated.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3982.html
October 26th, 1866: Texas Law Passed Limiting the Rights of Black People to Testify in Court
Texas passes law providing that black people cannot testify in court unless the defendant is black or the crime charged was committed against a black person. This law came after the Civil War and the defeat of the Confederacy. In order to be readmitted to the Union, states were required to alter laws and the constitutions to reflect the new status of black Americans as citizens with civil rights. As an effort to limit the rights of black Americans, Texas passed this law in order to limit the circumstances for which a black American could testify in court. This gave black Americans some rights while still keeping them second-class citizens.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-26/racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-26/
October 25th, 1669: Virginia Legislature Passes New Slave Law
Virginia legislature this week passes law declaring that slave masters shall not be criminally charged when they kill enslaved people who resist authority. This law ensured that if a master, mistress or overseer cannot be charged for murder if a slave dies during a correction of the slave’s transgression. This law was enacted at the end of a series of laws passed in Virginia during the 1660s. These laws enacted by Virginia were put into place in order to protect the rights and actions of slave owners. This law passed by Virginia can be traced back to the beginnings of slavery in the oppression and the unjust treatment of people of color in the U.S. which millions of Americans profited from.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/24-sla.html https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/slavery/experience/living/docs1.html https://eji.org/racial-justice/evolution-slavery
October 24th, 2012: Mississippi Sued for Incarcerating Children for Non-Criminal Violations of School Rules:
On October 24th, 2012 the United States Department of Justice filed a civil rights lawsuit against Mississippi, the Meridian Police department, the State of Mississippi, and city and state officials. To this point, the city had been incarcerating children for non-criminal violations of school rules. Not only does this count as cruel and unusual punishment, but also violated the rights of youth in being protected from such incarceration. In the event of student misconduct in the schools, they would immediately rely on the Meridian Police Department. The police would then arrest students without probable cause. Some of the violations were farting in class, being out of dress code or wearing the wrong colored socks. These very minor infractions of school policy gave children an unreasonable prison sentence. In addition, they were not given any due process rights with no legal representation, not being read their Miranda rights, and being incarcerated for days without a hearing. The practices carried out by the Meridian School district were not only cruel and unusual, but also specifically targeted children of color and with disabilities.
In 2012, they issued the federal investigation and it concluded that these practices were severe and had a disparate impact on students of color and students with disabilities. It was not until March 2013 that the Justice Department settled another lawsuit that limited the use of law enforcement in school discipline. The 2012 case is still pending however.
Although many may be lead to believe that desegregation practices ended after Brown v. the Board of Education, there are still many disparities still in place today in the United States. A case such as this seems unheard of today, but yet it was only 6 years ago that this was occurring and harming our youth.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-24/
October 23, 1969: 15 Years Post Brown V. Board of Education, Mississippi is Ordered to Desegregate Schools
On October 23, 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Mississippi to desegregate schools. This occurred 15 years after Brown v. Board of Education had ruled that separate, but equal was in fact not constitutional in 1954. Although the court had ruled to desegregate schools, many school districts failed to actually comply. Instead of desegregating schools, they simply adopted new rules that were in technical compliance with the Supreme Court, but not the genuine nature of the ruling.
In an effort to get schools to desegregate, the Court passed legislation that granted extra funding to schools that did integrate their schools. However, after 15 years, the public schools in Holmes County, Mississippi had still done nothing to integrate. In the case Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, they school district challenged the desegregation by arguing that they were entitled to take as long as they wanted to integrate based on “all deliberate speed” stated in Brown. On October 23, 1969 is when the Supreme Court finally heard the argument in Alexander and rejected the school’s claim, ordering them to end the dual school system at once. This case exemplifies the deep rooted opposition to integrated that plagued the South for many years despite official desegregation laws.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-23/
October 19, 1960: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Participated in a Lunch Counter Sit-In
Martin Luther King Jr. joined a sit-in protest in a department store in downtown Atlanta, Georgia. He was arrested with 51 other people for attempting to desegregate the cities' stores and restaurants. At this time, strict segregation laws were in place in Atlanta that separated black people. They were prevented from using the same water fountains, bathrooms, and ticket booths as whites. Laws also banned black people from being served at store lunch counters. The sit-in movement sought to change these unjust laws. Students would peacefully sit at segregated lunch counters and refuse to leave until they were served. Dr. King joined the students at a sit-in at Rich's, a local department store. He was arrested alongside the 300 students when they refused to leave. The students were later released for the misdemeanor, but Dr. King was held for four months based on violating his parole. President John F. Kennedy helped grant his release during his campaign.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-19/
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/sit-ins
October 18, 1775: Phillis Wheatley is Freed and Goes on to Become the First Black Woman to Publish a Poetry Book
On October 18, 1775, Phillis Wheatley was released from slavery and went on to become the first black woman, and second woman to publish a poetry book. Phillis Wheatley was born in 1753, in West Africa and brought to New England in 1761. John Wheatley then purchased her as a gift for his wife; she became their household slave, but during this time, they helped educate her in English as well as studies in Latin, Greek, the Bible and selected classics. With inspiration from English poets such as John Milton and Thomas Gray, she began to write poetry at age 13. She went on to become nationally acclaimed for her poem, “On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield” which was published as a broadside in Boston, New York and Philadelphia. She also traveled to London in 1771 and in 1773 she had 39 of her poems published as Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. One of the many topics she touched on through her poems was race.
Once she was freed in 1775, she began supporting herself as a seamstress and poet. She also wrote a letter to George Washington to show her support and he then proceeded to invite her to visit him in Cambridge, stating that he would be “happy to see a person so favored by the muses.” Phillis Wheatley’s poems are still widely studied and praised today. In fact, a few years ago some of her poems that were thought to have been lost were discovered.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/phillis-wheatley
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/phillis-wheatley
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/phillis-wheatley
October 17, 1871: President Grant Declares Martial Law in South Carolina due to Klan Violence
On October 17, 1871, President Grant declared martial law and eliminated the writ of habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties to combat KKK violence. These actions meant that those who perpetrated racial terrorism could be imprisoned without a trial. President Grant was forced to implement such measures because racial violence was extremely prevalent in these South Carolina counties and nothing was being done to stop it. Specifically, when juries were convened to try perpetrators of racial terrorism, the juries would not hold the perpetrators accountable. Grant demonstrated that the federal government could and would intervene to stop racial terrorism in states. Following President Grant’s actions, many klansmen were arrested and tried for their violent actions. After President Grant’s implementation of martial law and elimination of habeas corpus, KKK terrorism ultimately declined in the South Carolina.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/10-17/
https://millercenter.org/president/grant/domestic-affairs
October 16, 1968: Olympic Athletes Display Black Power Salute to Protest Racism
On October 16, 1968, Olympic athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos displayed the black power salute on the Olympics podium during the National Anthem. After Smith was presented with the gold medal and Carlos was presented with the bronze medal for the 200 meter track race, they executed their protest. The two planned the protest in advance to bring attention to various problems that black communities in the United States faced. For example, they protested lynchings by wearing beads and scarves. They also protested black poverty by taking off their shoes. Carlos specifically covered up where his uniform read “USA” because he wanted to “reflect the shame I felt that my country was traveling at a snail’s pace toward something that should be obvious to all people of good will” (Carlos, The Washington Post). As the National Anthem played, the two men raised their fists in the air while lowering their heads. Their actions drew national outrage. People were enraged by the fact that the two athletes protested during the National Anthem. Smith and Carlos were removed from the Olympics stadium and the American track team. The two also received death threats. Smith reflected on the protest when claiming “There was nothing but a raised fist in the air and a bowed head, acknowledging the American flag — not symbolizing a hatred for it” (Smith, The Washington Post).
The protest by Tommie Smith and John Carlos has many parallels with that of Colin Kaepernick and other football players who kneel during the National Anthem to protest police brutality. Kaepernick began the movement of protesting police brutality and racism during the National Anthem in the NFL by taking a knee. Like Smith and Carlos, people deemed Kaepernick to be unpatriotic and hated him for daring to protest during the National Anthem. As a result, Kaepernick no longer plays for the San Francisco 49ers, his longtime team, and has remained a free agent ever since he left the team. The similarities between the experiences of Smith, Carlos and Kaepernick are astonishing. When Smith protested, he knew that he was risking his future career. He was moved to see Kaepernick do the same, knowing that he was jeopardizing his ability to play the sport he loves to protest racism. In fact, Smith recognizes the similarities between his own protest and that of Kaepernick so strongly that Kaepernick’s protests brought him to tears.
Ultimately, the act of peacefully protesting racism through sports, sparked by Tommie Smith and John Carlos, persists and is still incredibly important today.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/09/24/they-didnt-takeaknee-the-black-power-protest-salute-that-shook-the-world-in-1968/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.169adc6b7f75
https://www.bbc.com/sport/american-football/45824031
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/taking-a-knee-national-anthem-nfl-trump-why-meaning-origins-racism-us-colin-kaepernick-a8521741.html
https://www.biography.com/people/colin-kaepernick-21132801
October 15, 2017: Beginning of the “Me Too” Movement
On October 15, 2017, actress Alyssa Milano sparked the “Me Too” movement, which was designed to show how large the problem of sexual harassment and assault is. Milano started this movement by responding to a message from her friend stating “‘If all the women who have been sexually harassed or assaulted wrote ‘Me Too.’ as a status, we might give people a sense of the magnitude of the problem.’” Milano encouraged people who have been sexually harassed or assaulted to respond to her tweet with “me too.” The tweet itself received thousands or replies and the phrase “Me Too” has become symbolic of surviving sexual harassment or assault.
Since this movement began, many men in positions of power have been accused of sexual misconduct. These men include Harvey Weinstein, a producer, Kevin Spacey, an actor, Les Moonves, CEO of CBS, and our newest United States Supreme Court Justice, Brett Kavanaugh. All of these men, except Kavanaugh, were held accountable for their actions and fired from their jobs. Kavanaugh, on the other hand, was promoted to have a seat on the United States Supreme Court after he was accused of sexual assault.
The “Me Too” movement has drawn necessary attention to the issues of sexual harassment and assault. While the movement has done a fantastic job of holding men in power who have committed sexual misconduct accountable, there are many who have committed these acts and have not been held accountable. Ultimately, the “Me Too” movement is a great and important start to achieving justice for survivors of sexual harassment and assault.
For more information, please visit:
https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2017%2Fdec%2F01%2Falyssa-milano-mee-too-sexual-harassment-abuse
http://time.com/5015204/harvey-weinstein-scandal/
https://www.cnn.com/politics/live-news/kavanaugh-fbi-investigation-oct-18/index.html
October 10, 1871: Black Activist, Octavius Catto, Murdered
On October 10, 1871, Octavius Catto, an outspoken activist for desegregation and black voting rights was murdered by a member of a white group whose goal was to prevent black people from voting. Catto was an excellent student who graduated at the top of his class at the Institute for Colored Youth. He went on to become a teacher at the Institute for Colored Youth and a corresponding secretary for the Banneker Institute, a society of black intellectual elites in Philadelphia. He eventually became the highest paid teacher in all of Philadelphia. Catto strongly advocated for educating the black population. His advocacy lead him to serve as a corresponding secretary for Pennsylvania’s State Equal Rights League, a group dedicated to achieving equal rights for black people in many realms. His involvement in politics deepened, which lead to white people targeting him in a malicious and racist manner. Catto was shot and killed in the middle of the street by a racist white person in front of many spectators.
Catto’s funeral drew attention at the national level, with visitors from several states in attendance. His grave reads “The Forgotten Hero” because his name is typically not the first that individuals think of regarding the fight for racial equality. However, he has become more well recognized over time. In 2017, a statue of Catto was unveiled in front of Philadelphia’s City Hall, becoming the first public monument dedicated to a specific black person in the city’s history. Co-chair of the Catto Memorial Fund, James B. Straw, stated "This is a story about Philadelphia and a view into our history that has been largely ignored.” Octavius Catto’s story is now much more well known and his legacy is celebrated on a larger scale.
For more information, please visit:
http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/murder-of-octavius-catto/#29901
https://exhibits.library.villanova.edu/institute-colored-youth/graduates/ov-catto/
http://www2.philly.com/philly/entertainment/arts/a-monument-at-last-for-octavius-catto-the-activist-who-changed-philadelphia-20170925.html
October 9, 2012: Female Education Activist, Malala Yousafzai, Shot in the Head by the Taliban
On October 9, 2012, 15 year-old Malala Yousafzai was shot in the head three times by a Taliban gunman for attempting to attend school. The Taliban had threatened schools that allowed girls to be educated, but Malala refused to stop attending school. She desired a life outside of working in the home and knew that education was the way to achieve such a life. Malala was an outspoken advocate for women’s education; she posted anonymousy on a blog and also appeared on television regarding the issue. Her activism infuriated the Taliban, leading them to shoot her while she was on the bus on her way home from school.
After enduring many surgeries and a lengthy rehabilitation process, Malala luckily survived. Today, she continues to advocate for female education. In December of 2014, she was presented with the Nobel Peace Prize and became the youngest person to ever receive the award. She is now studying Philosophy, Politics and Economics at the University of Oxford. Malala Yousafzai is now a symbol of the global struggle for women’s equality.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24379018
https://www.malala.org/malalas-story
October 5, 1953: Earl Warren Becomes the 14th Chief Justice Making Many Landmark Decisions for Civil Rights
On October 5, 1953 Earl Warren was sworn in as the 14th chief justice of the United States. During his time as chief justice, the court was known as the Warren Court. The Warren Court is best known for making landmark decisions for civil rights.
The Warren Court decided many cases that shifted the wave of focus towards civil rights in the United States. The best known case, Brown v. the Board of Education, banned the segregation of public schools. This landmark case shifted the Court’s and the nations priorities from property rights to issues of civil liberties. Also under the Warren court, Gideon v. Wainwright declared the right of all criminal defendants to receive publicly funded counsel; Miranda v. Arizona established the rights of a person in police custody to be informed of their rights; Mapp v. Ohio, prevented prosecutors from using illegally obtained evidence in court. Justice Earl Warren retired in June 1969, but his legacy still carries on today.
For more information, please visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Warren#U.S._Supreme_Court
October 3, 1922: Supreme Court Rules in Favor of a Law Banning Japanese Immigrants from Becoming American Citizens
On October 3, 1922, the Supreme Court heard the argument in Ozama v. United States, a case which unanimously upholds law banning Japanese immigrants from becoming American Citizens. This landmark case encouraged the anti-Japanese sentiment among the American population and set the stage for the Immigration Act of 1924, which barred all immigration form Japan. It was not until 1952 that Japanese immigrants were allowed to naturalize under the McCarren-Walter Act of 1952.
Although this landmark case was nearly 100 years ago the impact it had on the American population lasted much longer than the decision lasted. During World War II, many Japanese Americans were held in internment camps, despite their legal status as American citizens. So although the case was quite some time ago, its impacts on the lives of Japanese Americans were seen for many years following.
For more information, please visit:
http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Ozawa_v._United_States/
October 2, 1967: Thurgood Marshall Sworn in as the First Black Supreme Court Justice
October 2, 1967, Thurgood Marshall was sworn in as the first black Supreme Court Justice. A grandson of a slave, Thurgood Marhsall’s father instilled in him an appreciation for the Constitution and rule of law from a very young age. He attended Lincoln University in Chester County, graduating cum laude and later applied to the University of Maryland Law school in 1930; he was denied entry however because he was black. He then was admitted to Howard University Law School later that year.
Post-graduation, he became the Chief Counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He also was asked by the United Nations and the United Kingdom to help draft the constitutions for the emerging African Nations of Ghana and Tanzania. In 1961 he was appointed to the U.S Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; during this time he wrote over 150 decisions, many of which involved immigrant rights, privacy issues and double jeopardy. In 1965 he was appointed to the office of U.S Solicitor General by President Johnson, where he won 14 out of the 19 cases he argued before the Supreme Court, marking him as winning more cases before the Supreme Court than any other American. Finally, in 1967 he became the first African American man on the Supreme Court, where he served until 1991.
Thurgood Marshall’s nomination to the Supreme Court stands as a great advancement for the fight for civil rights. As an African American man, growing up in the face of racism and prejudice, his many accomplishments prove his determination and dedication to change.
For more information, please visit:
http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/marshall.htm
October 1, 1964: UC Berkeley Begins the Free Speech Movement
On October 1, 1964 the Free Speech Movement began at the University of California Berkeley. This movement was the fight of students demanding their academic freedom and free speech to be recognized on campus. Inspired by the struggle for civil rights, the movement began with students at the university protesting bans on on-campus political activities. The leader of the movement was a student at the university, Mario Savio. Him along with several other important leaders, led students in protests between 1964-1965 on the Berkeley campus. Thousands of students participated in the movement and helped spark of wave of student activism on college campuses.
One key event to note from the movement was when a graduate student set up a table with political information and was then arrested. In protest to his arrest, 3,000 students surrounded the police car for 36 hours. This occurrence proved the power and resilience of the students in fighting for their voices to be heard and their freedom of speech to be protected on campus.
For more information, please visit:
https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/43/the-free-speech-movement/
September 2018
September 28, 2011: Alabama State Law Denies Unauthorized Immigrants Equal Protection of the Law
On September 28, 2011 the State of Alabama began implementing a law, the “Beason-Hammon Alabama Taxpayer and Citizen Protection Act.” The act denies unauthorized immigrants equal protection of the law under the US Constitution and applicable international human rights law. Although States have populations of people who may have entered illegal and could be subject to deportation, this law goes beyond deportation and subjects all illegal immigrants to the infringement of their fundamental rights. This law allows law enforcement to stop and arrest anyone if they have “reasonable suspicion” the person is unauthorized. In addition to this it prohibits immigrants from entering “business transactions” with the state as well as making it a misdemeanor crime for any unauthorized immigrant to seek work. If any unauthorized immigrant is arrested for any minor crime, they can automatically be refused bail, denying their due process rights protected under the Bill of Rights.
The provisions of this act intentionally target immigrants and make life for them exceedingly more difficult while denying them much of the rights and freedoms the United States is founded upon. Although unauthorized immigrants may not be legally citizens, they should still be entitled to basic human right standards of due process and equal protection of the law. Under this law however, immigrants are denied both and presented with challenges and fear in their everyday life.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/12/14/no-way-live/alabamas-immigrant-law
September 27, 1919: Democratic National Committee Includes Female Members for the First Time.
On September 27, 1919 the Democratic National Committee votes to allow female members. Until this point women of the Democratic Party were only active during election years and would no longer be of use in the off years. At this time however, Republican women were full-time participants and were helping to gain women support for the party. The Democratic Party voted to allow female members in order to gain traction among women. Their membership became key once women gained the right to vote in 1920. The women of the Democratic Party helped to raise support among the new demographic of female voters and were crucial in further development of the party.
Although women have had the right to vote for over nearly 100 years now it is important to remember the fight it took to reach this point. Many great women fought to have
the equal rights of men to vote, and while women have made great advances in the past century, there is still much inequality in the United States and around the world for many women. This day in history marks a seemingly small step in women’s’ rights, but is really one of the many important events that have been part of the fight for equal rights in this country.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/history-women-democratic-party
September 25, 1789: the US Congress Proposes the Bill of Rights
On September 25, 1789 the US Congress proposed the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights contains the first 10 amendments of the United States Constitution. The Bill of Rights amendments add specific guarantees of personal freedoms rights as well as the limitations of the government’s power in judicial and other proceedings.
The Bill of Rights is the heart of many of our rights as Americans, protecting our freedom of speech, right to a trial, protection against cruel and unusual punishment and much more. Since its passage, the Bill of Rights has been the main reference point for many disputes of law. Many of the monumental cases in American History were decided through the Supreme Court’s use of the Bill of Rights and their evaluation of which rights are protected within in it. For example, in Roe V. Wade, the Supreme Court ruled that right to have an abortion was protected through the Bill of Rights.
For more information, please visit:
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/bill-of-rights/
September 24, 1667: Virginia Assembly Enacts a Law Overriding a British Policy Banning the Enslavement of Baptized Christians
On September 24, 1667 Virginia Assembly enacts a law declaring that enslaved Africans are not freed from bondage by baptism. Until now a British policy had forbid the enslavement of Christians. Since many Africans practiced Islam or African folk religions, they were considered heathens in the eye of the Christian church and therefore could lawfully be enslaved. The British colonists in America were worried however that slaves would convert to Christianity and they would no longer be able to lawfully enslave them. To prevent this from happening, many slave owners forbid enslaved people to learn about Christianity or be baptized. Virginia then passed an act which made it so that slaves who did get baptized were not exempt from bondage. Now Christianity could be spread among enslaved people, without the threat of slave owners having to free any of them. Many owners still did not allow enslaved people to learn about Christianity or convert because they feared it would encourage rebellion.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1660s/
September 12, 1992: Mae C. Jemison Becomes the First African American Woman to Go Into Space
In 1984 Jeminson became the first African American woman admitted to the space program and the first African American woman astronaut. She is a physician and was the science mission specialist aboard the Endeavour on mission STS47. During her mission she spent 8 days in space, during which she conducted tests on weightlessness and motion sickness on both the crew and herself.
Jeminson has been award multiple accolades and several honorary doctorates for her achievements including, the 1988 Essence Science and Technology Award, the Ebony Black Achievement Award in 1992 and a Montgomery Fellowship from Dartmouth College in 1993 for her achievements. She is also a member of the American Medical Association, the American Chemical Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Jeminson’s accomplishments are extensive and incredible and following her flight she hoped to show what women and other minorities can contribute if given the opportunity.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/jemison-mc.html
https://www.biography.com/people/mae-c-jemison-9542378
September 11, 2001: Terrorist Attack Sparks Ongoing Wave of Racist and Islamophobic Attacks, Discrimination
On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with Al Qaeda hijacked four commercial planes to carry out suicide attacks on the United States. Two planes crashed into the World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and the fourth was bound for the White House, but instead crashed in field in Pennsylvania after passengers fought the hijackers. The attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 casualties. The evening of the attacks, President George W. Bush addressed the nation saying, “We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these attacks and those who harbor them,” marking his pledge to fight terrorism. In the weeks following the attacks, hate crimes sparked significantly. Those who appeared to be of Middle Eastern descent were the targets as a result of the misdirected national sentiment to fight terrorism and those perceived to be even loosely associated with it. One of the first victims of these hate crimes was Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh man who was shot at his gas station in Mesa, Arizona 4 days after the attacks. In cities across the the country there were reports of arson and vandalism towards Mosques and other Islamic institutions.
Statistics from the FBI show the dramatic increase in hate crimes towards Muslims following the attacks. Between 2000 and 2001, reported hate crimes increased from 28 to 481. Since then, each year there have been between 100 to 200 reported hate crime incidents towards Muslims. Although the attacks were committed by an Islamic extremist group that does not properly represent the Islam, some people still unfortunately associate the religion as a whole with terrorism. This stereotype combined with fear of terrorism has led to the increase of hate crimes towards innocent people who are wrongly thought to be associated with terrorism based solely on appearance and religion. Even though it has been 17 years since the attacks, anti-Muslim attitudes are still prevalent in the United States today.
For more information, please see:
https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-09-12/data-hate-crimes-against-muslims-increased-after-911
https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/27/us/september-11-anniversary-fast-facts/index.html
https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/9-11-attacks
https://www.britannica.com/event/September-11-attacks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_September_11_attacks
September 10, 1963: White Students Un-Enroll from Alabama High School Rather than Attend Integrated Classes
On September 10, 1963 white students in Tuskegee, Alabama withdrew from Tuskegee High School, following the integration of schools in Macon County, Alabama. The Federal Court order integration of schools in the county and as a measure to prevent 13 black students from enrolling, Governor George Wallace temporarily closed the high school. Once the school was reopened, all 275 white students withdrew. The students then used state-funded scholarships to transfer to a white private school, Macon Academy.
For more information please see:
https://segregationinamerica.eji.org/report/massive-resistance.html
September 4, 1957: Little Rock Nine Arrive at Central High School For the First Time
Today marks the anniversary of the first day of the attempts of nine teenagers to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The incident garnered a lot of national attention at the time and continues to be extremely well-known for a variety of reasons, including its pivotal role in the battle for desegregation throughout the country and then-President Eisenhower's use of the Arkansas National Guard to enforce a Supreme Court mandate.
This week, instead of our usual "Today in History" posts, we are going to explore the history of the Little Rock Nine in greater detail on our blog, beginning today with a summary of the incident:
http://www.civilrightsjusticecenter.com/recent-posts/summary-of-the-little-rock-nine
On September 28, 2011 the State of Alabama began implementing a law, the “Beason-Hammon Alabama Taxpayer and Citizen Protection Act.” The act denies unauthorized immigrants equal protection of the law under the US Constitution and applicable international human rights law. Although States have populations of people who may have entered illegal and could be subject to deportation, this law goes beyond deportation and subjects all illegal immigrants to the infringement of their fundamental rights. This law allows law enforcement to stop and arrest anyone if they have “reasonable suspicion” the person is unauthorized. In addition to this it prohibits immigrants from entering “business transactions” with the state as well as making it a misdemeanor crime for any unauthorized immigrant to seek work. If any unauthorized immigrant is arrested for any minor crime, they can automatically be refused bail, denying their due process rights protected under the Bill of Rights.
The provisions of this act intentionally target immigrants and make life for them exceedingly more difficult while denying them much of the rights and freedoms the United States is founded upon. Although unauthorized immigrants may not be legally citizens, they should still be entitled to basic human right standards of due process and equal protection of the law. Under this law however, immigrants are denied both and presented with challenges and fear in their everyday life.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/12/14/no-way-live/alabamas-immigrant-law
September 27, 1919: Democratic National Committee Includes Female Members for the First Time.
On September 27, 1919 the Democratic National Committee votes to allow female members. Until this point women of the Democratic Party were only active during election years and would no longer be of use in the off years. At this time however, Republican women were full-time participants and were helping to gain women support for the party. The Democratic Party voted to allow female members in order to gain traction among women. Their membership became key once women gained the right to vote in 1920. The women of the Democratic Party helped to raise support among the new demographic of female voters and were crucial in further development of the party.
Although women have had the right to vote for over nearly 100 years now it is important to remember the fight it took to reach this point. Many great women fought to have
the equal rights of men to vote, and while women have made great advances in the past century, there is still much inequality in the United States and around the world for many women. This day in history marks a seemingly small step in women’s’ rights, but is really one of the many important events that have been part of the fight for equal rights in this country.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/history-women-democratic-party
September 25, 1789: the US Congress Proposes the Bill of Rights
On September 25, 1789 the US Congress proposed the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights contains the first 10 amendments of the United States Constitution. The Bill of Rights amendments add specific guarantees of personal freedoms rights as well as the limitations of the government’s power in judicial and other proceedings.
The Bill of Rights is the heart of many of our rights as Americans, protecting our freedom of speech, right to a trial, protection against cruel and unusual punishment and much more. Since its passage, the Bill of Rights has been the main reference point for many disputes of law. Many of the monumental cases in American History were decided through the Supreme Court’s use of the Bill of Rights and their evaluation of which rights are protected within in it. For example, in Roe V. Wade, the Supreme Court ruled that right to have an abortion was protected through the Bill of Rights.
For more information, please visit:
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/bill-of-rights/
September 24, 1667: Virginia Assembly Enacts a Law Overriding a British Policy Banning the Enslavement of Baptized Christians
On September 24, 1667 Virginia Assembly enacts a law declaring that enslaved Africans are not freed from bondage by baptism. Until now a British policy had forbid the enslavement of Christians. Since many Africans practiced Islam or African folk religions, they were considered heathens in the eye of the Christian church and therefore could lawfully be enslaved. The British colonists in America were worried however that slaves would convert to Christianity and they would no longer be able to lawfully enslave them. To prevent this from happening, many slave owners forbid enslaved people to learn about Christianity or be baptized. Virginia then passed an act which made it so that slaves who did get baptized were not exempt from bondage. Now Christianity could be spread among enslaved people, without the threat of slave owners having to free any of them. Many owners still did not allow enslaved people to learn about Christianity or convert because they feared it would encourage rebellion.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/1660s/
September 12, 1992: Mae C. Jemison Becomes the First African American Woman to Go Into Space
In 1984 Jeminson became the first African American woman admitted to the space program and the first African American woman astronaut. She is a physician and was the science mission specialist aboard the Endeavour on mission STS47. During her mission she spent 8 days in space, during which she conducted tests on weightlessness and motion sickness on both the crew and herself.
Jeminson has been award multiple accolades and several honorary doctorates for her achievements including, the 1988 Essence Science and Technology Award, the Ebony Black Achievement Award in 1992 and a Montgomery Fellowship from Dartmouth College in 1993 for her achievements. She is also a member of the American Medical Association, the American Chemical Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Jeminson’s accomplishments are extensive and incredible and following her flight she hoped to show what women and other minorities can contribute if given the opportunity.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/jemison-mc.html
https://www.biography.com/people/mae-c-jemison-9542378
September 11, 2001: Terrorist Attack Sparks Ongoing Wave of Racist and Islamophobic Attacks, Discrimination
On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with Al Qaeda hijacked four commercial planes to carry out suicide attacks on the United States. Two planes crashed into the World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and the fourth was bound for the White House, but instead crashed in field in Pennsylvania after passengers fought the hijackers. The attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 casualties. The evening of the attacks, President George W. Bush addressed the nation saying, “We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these attacks and those who harbor them,” marking his pledge to fight terrorism. In the weeks following the attacks, hate crimes sparked significantly. Those who appeared to be of Middle Eastern descent were the targets as a result of the misdirected national sentiment to fight terrorism and those perceived to be even loosely associated with it. One of the first victims of these hate crimes was Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh man who was shot at his gas station in Mesa, Arizona 4 days after the attacks. In cities across the the country there were reports of arson and vandalism towards Mosques and other Islamic institutions.
Statistics from the FBI show the dramatic increase in hate crimes towards Muslims following the attacks. Between 2000 and 2001, reported hate crimes increased from 28 to 481. Since then, each year there have been between 100 to 200 reported hate crime incidents towards Muslims. Although the attacks were committed by an Islamic extremist group that does not properly represent the Islam, some people still unfortunately associate the religion as a whole with terrorism. This stereotype combined with fear of terrorism has led to the increase of hate crimes towards innocent people who are wrongly thought to be associated with terrorism based solely on appearance and religion. Even though it has been 17 years since the attacks, anti-Muslim attitudes are still prevalent in the United States today.
For more information, please see:
https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-09-12/data-hate-crimes-against-muslims-increased-after-911
https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/27/us/september-11-anniversary-fast-facts/index.html
https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/9-11-attacks
https://www.britannica.com/event/September-11-attacks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_September_11_attacks
September 10, 1963: White Students Un-Enroll from Alabama High School Rather than Attend Integrated Classes
On September 10, 1963 white students in Tuskegee, Alabama withdrew from Tuskegee High School, following the integration of schools in Macon County, Alabama. The Federal Court order integration of schools in the county and as a measure to prevent 13 black students from enrolling, Governor George Wallace temporarily closed the high school. Once the school was reopened, all 275 white students withdrew. The students then used state-funded scholarships to transfer to a white private school, Macon Academy.
For more information please see:
https://segregationinamerica.eji.org/report/massive-resistance.html
September 4, 1957: Little Rock Nine Arrive at Central High School For the First Time
Today marks the anniversary of the first day of the attempts of nine teenagers to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The incident garnered a lot of national attention at the time and continues to be extremely well-known for a variety of reasons, including its pivotal role in the battle for desegregation throughout the country and then-President Eisenhower's use of the Arkansas National Guard to enforce a Supreme Court mandate.
This week, instead of our usual "Today in History" posts, we are going to explore the history of the Little Rock Nine in greater detail on our blog, beginning today with a summary of the incident:
http://www.civilrightsjusticecenter.com/recent-posts/summary-of-the-little-rock-nine
August 2018
August 31, 1966: Alabama Prevents School Districts from Desegregating Twelve Years After Brown v. Board
On August 31, 1966, the Alabama Senate passed a bill that barred local school districts from entering into desegregation agreements with the national government. Shortly thereafter, the bill passed in the Alabama House of Representatives and was signed into law by Governor George Wallace. Desegregation agreements were required by the federal government because many school districts in the South were still racially segregated after more than a decade since Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was decided. The United States Office of Education provided requirements and guidance for how schools should be racially integrated to segregated school districts. It also required that segregated school districts submit plans for how they would integrate. If districts did not comply, the federal government could withhold funding to the school districts under the Civil Rights Act. The Civil Rights Act contains a provision that only allows federal funding to school districts that are integrated.
Despite the risk of losing federal funding, Alabama deprived its local school districts of the ability to enter into desegregation agreements with the federal government. The passage of this bill resulted in many school districts rejecting or revising desegregation plans that were previously negotiated with the federal government. This law also clearly demonstrated Alabama’s, as well as the South’s, strong commitment to racism.
For more information, please see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-31/
August 30, 1967: The United States Confirms Thurgood Marshall as the First African American Supreme Court Justice
On August 30, 1967, Thurgood Marshall was confirmed as the first African American U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Marshall was appointed after previously serving as an attorney for the NAACP, a judge for the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. solicitor general.
During his time as an attorney, Thurgood Marshall argued 32 cases before the U.S. Supreme Court, winning 29. Some of his Supreme Court wins were landmark decisions, forever changing the course of American constitutional interpretation. Marshall’s most famous Supreme Court win was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, which outlawed racial segregation in public schools. Prior to this decision, “separate but equal” facilities for white children and children of color were deemed constitutional. However, after Marshall presented arguments before the court, Chief Justice Earl Warren stated in a unanimous decision that “Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka).
While Thurgood Marshall was a judge for the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals, he issued over 100 decisions. None of his decisions were ever overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court. As solicitor general, Marshall was the attorney who represented the U.S. government before the Supreme Court. He won 14 of the 19 cases he argued before the Court while he filled this position.
After joining the Supreme Court, Marshall became well known for his commitment to liberal constitutional interpretation. For example, every time a death penalty case was decided, he consistently argued that the punishment was unconstitutional in all scenarios. He was also part of the majority in Roe v. Wade, which deemed abortion constitutional. Later during his tenure on the bench, more conservative justices were appointed. The conservative Supreme Court resulted in Marshall writing many dissenting opinions, where he demonstrated commitment to his values.
Thurgood Marshall was the first person who was not a white man to be appointed and confirmed to the U.S. Supreme Court. He left behind a legacy of strongly advocating for members of marginalized communities.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thurgood-marshall
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12120372216939101759&q=brown+v+board+of+education&hl=en&as_sdt=6,48
https://www.biography.com/people/thurgood-marshall-9400241
August 29, 1997: 7,000 Demonstrators March Across the Brooklyn Bridge to Protest Police Brutality and the Assault of Abner Louima
Abner Louima, a Haitian immigrant, was brutally assaulted by New York police officers. On August 9, 1997, Louima was leaving a nightclub when police officers were breaking up a crowd. Someone punched Officer Volpe and the officer mistook Louima for the assailant. Louima reported being taken into a police car and being beaten up twice before he was even further assaulted. The officers took him to a police station, handcuffed him, stripped him, called him racist names and sodomized him with a plunger. Louima underwent surgery for internal injuries and was hospitalized for two months.
Officer Volpe, after denying the allegations for an extensive period of time, eventually plead guilty to assaulting Louima and was sentenced to 30 years in prison without parole.
Prior to the plea agreement, people expressed their outrage at the officers’ gross abuse of power and demanded justice for Abner Louima. On August 29, 1997, 7,000 people marched across the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City to protest Louima’s assault and police brutality in general. Protesters brought plungers with them and chanted “shame on you” at the police officers who lined the protest route. Many of the signs people held at the protest had the same messages as signs that appear at protests against police brutality today. For example, one gentleman is pictured holding a sign that says “NO JUSTICE NO PEACE!” This phrase has also been seen on signs at protests of the police killings of Antwon Rose, Alton Sterling and Michael Brown, all of whom were African American men. The consistency of such messages highlights the fact that African Americans and people of color have faced police brutality for decades without adequate relief. Abner Louima’s case is one of far too many examples of police officers abusing their authority against members of marginalized communities, and specifically African Americans.
For more information, please see:
https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/nyregion/chronology-louima-case.html
https://www.wnyc.org/story/twenty-years-later-look-back-nypd-assault-abner-louima-and-what-it-means-today/
http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/2-cops-eyed-sex-assault-70th-pct-suspect-brutalized-article-1.785482
http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/volpe-admits-louima-attack-article-1.839065
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-protest-against-police-brutality-of-abner-louima-marches-across-brooklyn-3872452.html
https://wtvr.com/2018/06/23/car-drives-through-crowd-protesting-police-killing-of-antwon-rose-in-pittsburg/
http://cms.trust.org/item/20160717041343-7dw3u?view=print
https://mondoweiss.net/2014/08/justice-peace-ferguson/
August 28, 1963: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivers “I Have a Dream” speech
On August 28, 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his most famous speech at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In front of about 250,000 people, Dr. King discussed the fact that although African Americans had been freed from bondage, segregation and racism prevented them from becoming entirely free. He went on to explain the pressing urgency of combating racism when stating “Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual” (King). During the speech, Dr. King emphasized one of his central ideals: that this fight for racial justice must be carried out peacefully.
After discussing hardships African Americans endured and how he thought racial justice should be achieved, Dr. King uttered the most famous part of this speech, in which he discussed what he dreamed the world could look like in the future. Dr. King stated “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up, live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." (King) (emphasis added). During this speech, he articulated many of the ways in which he dreamed racial equality would become a reality.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is known as a key moment of the civil rights movement. The speech is also recognized as a prime example of successful protest. The “I Have a Dream” speech is now one of the most famous speeches ever delivered.
For more information, see:
https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf
https://www.history.com/topics/i-have-a-dream-speech
August 27, 1963: W.E.B. DuBois Dies at 95
W.E.B. DuBois was an influential writer, philosopher, historian, sociologist and activist. He was one of the creators of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and arguably one of the most prominent leaders of the African American community during his lifetime. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 1888, and went on to pioneer Pan-Africanism, the belief that all people of African descent around the world share in a common cause and struggle for freedom. His thinking remains controversial: Notably, he fiercely debated Brooker T. Washington and opposed his idea that Black people should accept discrimination and strive to achieve equality through economic gain. His numerous notable publications include The Souls of Black Folk and his own autobiography, The Autobiography of W.E.B. Du Bois.
For more information, please see:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/W-E-B-Du-Bois
August 24, 1923: Black Man Lynched in Jacksonville, Florida
On August 24, 1923, a 34-year-old African-American named Ben Hart was killed based on suspicion that he was a “Peeing Tom” who had peered into a young white girl’s bedroom window near Jacksonville, Florida that morning. According to witnesses, about ten unmasked white men came to Hart’s home around 9:30 pm claiming to be deputy sheriffs and accusing Hart of looking into the girl’s window. Hart maintained his innocence and agreed to go to the county jail with the men but was killed before he arrived. The next day, he was found handcuffed and his body shot six times in a ditch about three miles from the city. Witnesses reported seeing Hart fleeing from white men on foot who were shooting at him. The investigation of Hart’s murder found him innocent of the accusation against him.
For more information, please visit
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-24/
August 23, 1989: Black Teen Murdered by White Mob in Brooklyn, New York
On August 23, 1989, 16-year-old Yusef Hawkins and his three friends went to the predominately white Bensonhurt section of Brooklyn, New York, to inquire about a used car for sale. On their way, the three boys encountered a group of 30 white youths in the street. Armed with baseball bats and at least one handgun, the mob set upon the three boys. Yusef’s friends managed to escape the mob, but Yusef was shot twice in the chest and later pronounced dead at a nearby medical center. Later investigation revealed that Gina Feliciano had recently spurned the advances of a young white man and was rumored to be dating an African American. The rejected white boy gathered friends to lay in wait for the black boyfriend they believed would be visiting Gina. Yusef Hawkins was the victim of their misdirected racist rage.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-23/
August 22, 1905: Whites Riot After Black Man Enters Pittsburgh Restaurant
On August 22, 1905, an African-American man named Charles Julius Miller and an unknown African-American woman entered Café Neapolitan, a Pittsburgh restaurant. The couple was immediately refused service and ordered to leave the restaurant. When Miller refused, a “free-for-all” ensued, leaving many injured and resulting in approximately fifty arrests.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-22/
August 21, 1831: Nat Turner Leads Enslaved Black People in Virginia Rebellion
An enslaved black man, Nat turner was very religious and ministered to fellow enslaved blacks as well as whites in Southampton, Virginia. Turner was passionate about studying the Bible and often claimed to have divine visions. In the late 1820s, he claimed to have visions believing that God was calling him to lead a rebellion. In February 1831, he witnessed a solar eclipse and took it as a sign to start his campaign. On August 13, 1831, Turner saw another eclipse and put his mind to begin the rebellion. On August 21, 1831, Turner led his followers to various plantations, recruiting other blacks. Turner’s crowd increased to 60 to 70 men armed with muskets and tools. They killed white plantation owners but let go of poor whites. Turner and his followers killed nearly 60 white people before they were captured and killed by a militia. A lot of his followers were killed and captured, but Turner managed to escape and remained at large until October 30, 1831. He was criminally convicted and executed along with 30 other African Americans. After the incident, angry white mobs tortured and murdered hundreds of blacks and Southern legislatures passed laws to prohibit blacks from assembling freely, conducting independent religious services, and gaining an education.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-21/
August 20, 1619: First Enslaved Africans Land in Jamestown, Virginia
The Africans who were sold in Virginia in 1619 had been taken from Angola in West Central Africa by Portuguese and Spanish slavers. They were captured in various wars and were forced to march 100-200 miles to the major slave-trade port of Luanda on the coast. From the port, they were put on board the San Juan Bautista to Vera Cruz. While in route, the ship was attacked by two English privateers, the White Lion and Treasurer, and robbed of 50-60 Africans. The White Lion arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia. A prominent planter and merchant reported that “20 and odd Negroes” were sold in exchange for food on the James River. The remaining Africans were transported to Jamestown and sold into slavery. The Treasurer arrived at Point Comfort a few days after the White Lion but quickly set sail for the English colony of Bermuda. Prior to leaving the port, however, about 7 to 9 Africans were possibly sold, including a woman named “Angelo” who was taken to Lieutenant William Pierce’s Jamestown property.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-20/
https://historicjamestowne.org/history/the-first-africans/
August 17, 1965: Days of Riots End in Watts
On August 11, 1965, a police officer pulled over brothers Marquette and Ronald Frye in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, CA. A crowd gathered to watch and more officers assembled as police started to question the two African American men. When the mother of the two arrived at the scene, police started to beat the brothers and all three Fryes were arrested. Outraged at the police brutality, the crowd started to throw rocks at police cars, then city buses and other motorists. This soon erupted into rioting throughout the 20-block area of Watts. This quickly grew into at least 5000 people participating in throwing bricks and other debris through store windows, at police cars and at white passersby in response to police brutality and government officials’ indifference. 400 police officers arrived at the scene. They exchanged gunfire with the young protesters and beat and arrested many of them but were unable to quell the unrest. After six days, the riot ended with 34 dead, 1032 injured, nearly 4000 arrested and $40 million in damage. Governor Pat Brown convened a commission to identify its roots and the commission released a report concluding that the riots were the culmination of Watts’ black residents’ long-felt dissatisfaction with high unemployment rates, poor housing, and inadequate schools. Despite these findings, almost nothing was done to address the inequalities or to rebuild Watts.
For more information, please see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-17/
August 16, 2006: Florida Attorney General Names Suspects in 55-Year-Old Civil Rights Murders
Harry and Harriette Moore were civil rights activists and teachers in Florida. They established the first Brevard County branch of the NAACP in 1934. Their work with the NAACP led to a lawsuit that gained equal pay for black teachers. In 1945, Harry Moore established the Florida Progressive Voters League. This helped register thousands of black voters in the state of Florida. In 1946, Harry Moore was appointed to be director of the Florida NAACP, and he called for investigations into several lynchings in the South. On December 25, 1951, a bomb exploded in the home of Florida residents Harry and Harriette Moore. The bombing resulted in the killing of this couple on their 25th wedding anniversary. Harry Moore’s mother and the couple’s daughter were asleep in adjoining rooms, but they were able to escape with minor injuries. This bombing was one of many in a series of bombings happening in Florida. During the series of bombings, African Americans, Jews, and Catholics were the primary people groups being targeted. The Moores’ deaths were among the first murders of prominent civil rights leaders during the civil rights era. This tragic incident sparked a number of meetings and protests throughout the nation. However, no arrests were made. Nearly 55 years later, on August 16, 2006, Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist announced that the state had enough evidence to conclude that KKK member, Earl Krooklyn, had recruited other Klan members and had used floor plans of the Moore home to plan and succeed in bombing their home. By 2006, all four suspects were already deceased.
For more information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-16/
http://www.pbs.org/harrymoore/harry/mbio.html
https://www.biography.com/people/harry-t-moore
https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/17/us/17florida.html
August 15, 1963: Virginia Teenagers Jailed For Protesting Segregated Public Education Nine Years After Brown v. Board of Education
On August 15, 1963, 32 teenagers who protested and challenged the Prince Edward County School Board’s refusal to integrate their public school system were released from jail. Prince Edward County had refused to cooperate with a federal appeals court’s order to desegregate its all-white public high school in compliance with the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1954 decision in Brown v. Board. The county officials refused to fund the local schools and became the only jurisdiction in the county without a public school system. In 1960, 40% of the population was African American, but all elected officials were white and African Americans had very limited political power. African Americans were also racially victimized because they earned less than half of their white counterparts, which led African Americans into poverty. As a result, the end of county public education disproportionately harmed black students. Many left the town to live with friends and family in other communities and attend school there; hundreds of others remained in the county without attending formal school. In June 1963, members of the NAACP in Prince Edward County organized a campaign to confront the racial discrimination in their education system. They planed peaceful demonstrations focused on the city’s business district, staging sit-ins, try-ins, and attempts to integrate churches that were often met with violence and arrests. The day before the teens were released, Governor Harrison announced the creation of the Prince Edward Country Free School Association, a nonprofit organization dedicated to creating an integrated school system in the county. It did not accomplish integrating education system, but did temporarily teach local black students. In May 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Prince Edward County’s discontinuation of public education was unconstitutional, and the schools reopened in September.
For more information, see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-15/
August 14, 1908: Race Riot Erupts in Springfield, Illinois
A mob of white citizens got together at the local jail in Springfield, Illinois, where two black men were being held in custody. The two men were George Richardson, who was accused of raping a white woman, and Joe James, accused of raping a white woman and killing a white man. The mob’s intention was to lynch the two men, but a violent riot broke out when they learned that the two men had been transported to another city. Some people from the mob destroyed the business of Henry Loper, a man rumored to have helped transport Richardson and James. The rest of the mob attacked the police and militia at the jail believing that Richardson and James were still there. Later, the two groups rejoined and demolished homes and businesses of African Americans in Springfield, stole close to $150,000 worth of property, and set fire to whole blocks. The next morning, people woke up the to lynching of two African American men. Scott Burton was shot four times, dragged through the streets, then hung and mutilated until the militia interceded. William Donegan, an African American man who was married to a white woman, was taken from his home and hung from a tree across the street, where he was stabbed and his throat was cut. Mr. Donegan was still alive when militia arrived at the scene but died the next morning. Many African Americans fled the city out of terror and sought National Guard protection. Police arrested 150 people and 117 were indicted of participating in the violence. In September 1908, Nellie Hallam, the alleged rape victim of George Richardson, signed an affidavit stating that no black man had attacked her. She stated that the attacker was a white man, but refused to identify him. Joe James was convicted of murder and sentenced to death.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-14/
August 13, 1955: Voting Rights Activist Lamar Smith Murdered in Mississippi
Lamar Smith, a 63-year-old African American farmer and World War I veteran was shot and killed in front of the Lincoln County Courthouse in Brookhaven, Mississippi on the morning of August 13, 1955. He was encouraging African Americans to vote in a local run-off election at the time. Smith was known for encouraging African Americans to vote and was a voting rights advocate affiliated with the Regional Council of Negro Leadership. He was threatened and warned to stop advocating for African Americans voting rights, but he could not resist to fight for what was right. His murder was seen by dozens of witnesses including a sheriff who let one of the alleged assailants to leave the crime scene covered in blood. Days later, three white suspects were arrested including the guy who left the scene covered in blood. In September, a grand jury composed of 20 white men declined to indict the three suspects because witnesses failed to testify. This case ended up punishing no one for the crime. Smith’s death was one of many racially motivated killings in Mississippi.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-13/
August 9, 1961 - James B. Parsons Nominated First Black Federal Judge in U.S.
On August 9, 1961, President JFK nominated James Benton parsons as the United States District Court Judge for Northern Illinois. At that time, Judge Parsons was serving as a judge on the Superior Court of Cook County, Illinois. On August 30, 1961, the Senate confirmed Judge Parson's nomination, making him the first African American federal judge in the continental U.S. and the first African American federal judge with life tenure. Prior to his appointment, African Americans had been appointed solely to fixed judicial terms on the United States District Court for the Virgin Islands. Judge Parsons went on to accomplish many significant "firsts" within his position as a district court judge. On April 17, 1975, he became the first African American Chief Judge of a District Court. In May 1975, he was elected the first African American representative to the United States Judicial Conference. Later, in 1992, he retired from active trial duty after 30 years of service. He served the Northern District of Illinois until his death on June 19, 1993.
For more information about Judge James B. Parsons, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-09/
ballotpedia.org/James_B._Parsons
aaregistry.org/story/james-parsons-an-influential-judge/
August 5-6, 2014 - African American Workers Sue Memphis Cotton Gin for Racial Discrimination
After months of facing racial discrimination, harassment, and threats from a white supervisor, two African American workers at the Atkinson Cotton Warehouse (Mr. Harris and Mr. Mangrum) sought help. Their supervisor at the Memphis cotton gin branch refused for the men to drink from a "whites only" water fountain, referred to them using racial slurs, and threatened them with hanging. The discrimination occurred on a daily basis. African American employees were often referred to as "monkeys" and were told that they "needed to think like a white man." As the discrimination continued, Mr. Harris began to record the racist comments on his cell phone as proof of what was happening. Their workplace became so discriminatory that the men had a lot of fear going to work. The discrimination faced by the African American employees at Atkinson Cotton Warehouse was a reminder of the Jim Crow era, especially in the supervisor's support of segregation. When they reported this discrimination to their supervisors in early 2014, they were fired from their jobs. In June 2014, they began to take legal action by filing a federal complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). After the reports of discrimination became public, the warehouse owner claimed to have no knowledge about the situation and stated that warehouse management outsourced to another company. Federal Compress, the management company, later stated that the supervisor is no longer employed with them. However, on August 5, 2014, Harris, Mangrum, and another employee named Vashone Ford filed a federal lawsuit against the warehouse owners. They sought anti-discrimination training for all employees and a monitoring of the business environment.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-05/
www.cnn.com/2014/06/05/us/memphis-supervisor-racist-audio/index.html
August 3, 2018 Race Riots End in Chicago, Illinois, with 38
Dead During the Great Migration, Chicago was a popular destination for African Americans from the South to escape from racial violence and in search of economic opportunity. Chicago’s African American population went from 44,000 in 1910 to 109,000 in 1920. It wasn’t only African Americans who relocated to Chicago. Thousands of whites relocated to Chicago in search in work as well. Many African Americans settled next to European immigrants on the south side of Chicago, where many industrial jobs were available. African Americans still faced racial animosity due to overcrowding, employment disputes with whites, poor relations with police, and segregation initiating from custom rather than law. On July 27, 1919, one African American boy named Eugene Williams drowned at a Chicago beach after white man struck him with a rock for crossing into “white” side of the ocean. The police refused to arrest the white rock thrower and there were misunderstandings of each group as to what had happened at the beach. African Americans were furious at the racial injustice and it led to riots which ended August 3, 1919 by Governor Frank Lowden.
- Saehee Kwak
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-03/
August 2, 1900 - North Carolina Votes to Disenfranchise Black Residents
On August 2, 1900, white voters in North Carolina cast their ballots in favor of imposing the passing of a literacy test as a requirement to register to vote, with an exception for illiterate people with a relative who were registered to vote before 1863. This was to disenfranchise most of African-American voting population in the state to ensure white could rule the state even if they were illiterate. As it came closer to the election day, there were more and more campaign events encouraging white population to vote for disenfranchisement. The day before the election, William Guthrie, a former confederate officer and candidate for the state Supreme Court said, “The people of the east and west are coming together. The amendment will pass and the negro curbed in every part of the state. Good government will be restored everywhere. Then our ladies can walk the streets of our towns in safety, day or night. White women will not be afraid to go about alone in the country. We will teach the colored race that out people must be respected. We have restrained and conquered other races. They obeyed our demands or were exterminated with the sword. We are at a crisis. Let us rise to the occasion. Come together!” This campaign was also suppressed the African-American vote by stating “no negro must vote. All white men must vote.” The effect of disenfranchising African-American voters continued without federal interference until the Voting Rights Act became law in 1965.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-02/
August 1, 1944 - White Philadelphia Transit Workers Strike to Protest Promotion of African American Employees
As the United States entered into WWII, Philadelphia became one of America's biggest war production sources. About 600,000 workers relied on the Philadelphia Transportation Company for transportation to these war production factories. On August 1, 1944, white Philadelphia Transportation Company employees began to strike to protest the company's decision to promote 8 African American workers to the position of trolley driver. This position was previously reserved for white men. The 8 men were promoted after President FDR issued a couple executive orders. The orders 8802 and 9436 prohibited companies with government contracts from discrimination based on race or religion, forcing companies to include a nondiscrimination clause in their contracts. Several white Philadelphia Transportation employees led the strike, and they threatened to continue the strike until the 8 individuals promoted were demoted. The strike grew to include more than 6000 workers, crippling production and impacting the city. The strike prevented nearly 2 million people from traveling and cost businesses nearly $1 million per day. On the 3rd day of the strike, President FDR authorized the War Department to take control of the Public Transportation Company. Two days later, 5000 troops moved into Philadelphia to stop the uprising. Despite military presence, the strike sparked numerous acts of racial violence, including several shootings. After more than a week, the strike ended and the Philadelphia Transportation employees returned to work after being threatened with termination, loss of draft deferments, and ineligibility of unemployment. By September 1944, Philadelphia Transportation Company's first black trolley drivers were on duty.
For more information on this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-01/
On August 31, 1966, the Alabama Senate passed a bill that barred local school districts from entering into desegregation agreements with the national government. Shortly thereafter, the bill passed in the Alabama House of Representatives and was signed into law by Governor George Wallace. Desegregation agreements were required by the federal government because many school districts in the South were still racially segregated after more than a decade since Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was decided. The United States Office of Education provided requirements and guidance for how schools should be racially integrated to segregated school districts. It also required that segregated school districts submit plans for how they would integrate. If districts did not comply, the federal government could withhold funding to the school districts under the Civil Rights Act. The Civil Rights Act contains a provision that only allows federal funding to school districts that are integrated.
Despite the risk of losing federal funding, Alabama deprived its local school districts of the ability to enter into desegregation agreements with the federal government. The passage of this bill resulted in many school districts rejecting or revising desegregation plans that were previously negotiated with the federal government. This law also clearly demonstrated Alabama’s, as well as the South’s, strong commitment to racism.
For more information, please see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-31/
August 30, 1967: The United States Confirms Thurgood Marshall as the First African American Supreme Court Justice
On August 30, 1967, Thurgood Marshall was confirmed as the first African American U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Marshall was appointed after previously serving as an attorney for the NAACP, a judge for the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. solicitor general.
During his time as an attorney, Thurgood Marshall argued 32 cases before the U.S. Supreme Court, winning 29. Some of his Supreme Court wins were landmark decisions, forever changing the course of American constitutional interpretation. Marshall’s most famous Supreme Court win was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, which outlawed racial segregation in public schools. Prior to this decision, “separate but equal” facilities for white children and children of color were deemed constitutional. However, after Marshall presented arguments before the court, Chief Justice Earl Warren stated in a unanimous decision that “Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka).
While Thurgood Marshall was a judge for the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals, he issued over 100 decisions. None of his decisions were ever overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court. As solicitor general, Marshall was the attorney who represented the U.S. government before the Supreme Court. He won 14 of the 19 cases he argued before the Court while he filled this position.
After joining the Supreme Court, Marshall became well known for his commitment to liberal constitutional interpretation. For example, every time a death penalty case was decided, he consistently argued that the punishment was unconstitutional in all scenarios. He was also part of the majority in Roe v. Wade, which deemed abortion constitutional. Later during his tenure on the bench, more conservative justices were appointed. The conservative Supreme Court resulted in Marshall writing many dissenting opinions, where he demonstrated commitment to his values.
Thurgood Marshall was the first person who was not a white man to be appointed and confirmed to the U.S. Supreme Court. He left behind a legacy of strongly advocating for members of marginalized communities.
For more information, please see:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/thurgood-marshall
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12120372216939101759&q=brown+v+board+of+education&hl=en&as_sdt=6,48
https://www.biography.com/people/thurgood-marshall-9400241
August 29, 1997: 7,000 Demonstrators March Across the Brooklyn Bridge to Protest Police Brutality and the Assault of Abner Louima
Abner Louima, a Haitian immigrant, was brutally assaulted by New York police officers. On August 9, 1997, Louima was leaving a nightclub when police officers were breaking up a crowd. Someone punched Officer Volpe and the officer mistook Louima for the assailant. Louima reported being taken into a police car and being beaten up twice before he was even further assaulted. The officers took him to a police station, handcuffed him, stripped him, called him racist names and sodomized him with a plunger. Louima underwent surgery for internal injuries and was hospitalized for two months.
Officer Volpe, after denying the allegations for an extensive period of time, eventually plead guilty to assaulting Louima and was sentenced to 30 years in prison without parole.
Prior to the plea agreement, people expressed their outrage at the officers’ gross abuse of power and demanded justice for Abner Louima. On August 29, 1997, 7,000 people marched across the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City to protest Louima’s assault and police brutality in general. Protesters brought plungers with them and chanted “shame on you” at the police officers who lined the protest route. Many of the signs people held at the protest had the same messages as signs that appear at protests against police brutality today. For example, one gentleman is pictured holding a sign that says “NO JUSTICE NO PEACE!” This phrase has also been seen on signs at protests of the police killings of Antwon Rose, Alton Sterling and Michael Brown, all of whom were African American men. The consistency of such messages highlights the fact that African Americans and people of color have faced police brutality for decades without adequate relief. Abner Louima’s case is one of far too many examples of police officers abusing their authority against members of marginalized communities, and specifically African Americans.
For more information, please see:
https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/nyregion/chronology-louima-case.html
https://www.wnyc.org/story/twenty-years-later-look-back-nypd-assault-abner-louima-and-what-it-means-today/
http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/2-cops-eyed-sex-assault-70th-pct-suspect-brutalized-article-1.785482
http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/volpe-admits-louima-attack-article-1.839065
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-protest-against-police-brutality-of-abner-louima-marches-across-brooklyn-3872452.html
https://wtvr.com/2018/06/23/car-drives-through-crowd-protesting-police-killing-of-antwon-rose-in-pittsburg/
http://cms.trust.org/item/20160717041343-7dw3u?view=print
https://mondoweiss.net/2014/08/justice-peace-ferguson/
August 28, 1963: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivers “I Have a Dream” speech
On August 28, 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his most famous speech at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In front of about 250,000 people, Dr. King discussed the fact that although African Americans had been freed from bondage, segregation and racism prevented them from becoming entirely free. He went on to explain the pressing urgency of combating racism when stating “Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual” (King). During the speech, Dr. King emphasized one of his central ideals: that this fight for racial justice must be carried out peacefully.
After discussing hardships African Americans endured and how he thought racial justice should be achieved, Dr. King uttered the most famous part of this speech, in which he discussed what he dreamed the world could look like in the future. Dr. King stated “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up, live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." (King) (emphasis added). During this speech, he articulated many of the ways in which he dreamed racial equality would become a reality.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is known as a key moment of the civil rights movement. The speech is also recognized as a prime example of successful protest. The “I Have a Dream” speech is now one of the most famous speeches ever delivered.
For more information, see:
https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf
https://www.history.com/topics/i-have-a-dream-speech
August 27, 1963: W.E.B. DuBois Dies at 95
W.E.B. DuBois was an influential writer, philosopher, historian, sociologist and activist. He was one of the creators of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and arguably one of the most prominent leaders of the African American community during his lifetime. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 1888, and went on to pioneer Pan-Africanism, the belief that all people of African descent around the world share in a common cause and struggle for freedom. His thinking remains controversial: Notably, he fiercely debated Brooker T. Washington and opposed his idea that Black people should accept discrimination and strive to achieve equality through economic gain. His numerous notable publications include The Souls of Black Folk and his own autobiography, The Autobiography of W.E.B. Du Bois.
For more information, please see:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/W-E-B-Du-Bois
August 24, 1923: Black Man Lynched in Jacksonville, Florida
On August 24, 1923, a 34-year-old African-American named Ben Hart was killed based on suspicion that he was a “Peeing Tom” who had peered into a young white girl’s bedroom window near Jacksonville, Florida that morning. According to witnesses, about ten unmasked white men came to Hart’s home around 9:30 pm claiming to be deputy sheriffs and accusing Hart of looking into the girl’s window. Hart maintained his innocence and agreed to go to the county jail with the men but was killed before he arrived. The next day, he was found handcuffed and his body shot six times in a ditch about three miles from the city. Witnesses reported seeing Hart fleeing from white men on foot who were shooting at him. The investigation of Hart’s murder found him innocent of the accusation against him.
For more information, please visit
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-24/
August 23, 1989: Black Teen Murdered by White Mob in Brooklyn, New York
On August 23, 1989, 16-year-old Yusef Hawkins and his three friends went to the predominately white Bensonhurt section of Brooklyn, New York, to inquire about a used car for sale. On their way, the three boys encountered a group of 30 white youths in the street. Armed with baseball bats and at least one handgun, the mob set upon the three boys. Yusef’s friends managed to escape the mob, but Yusef was shot twice in the chest and later pronounced dead at a nearby medical center. Later investigation revealed that Gina Feliciano had recently spurned the advances of a young white man and was rumored to be dating an African American. The rejected white boy gathered friends to lay in wait for the black boyfriend they believed would be visiting Gina. Yusef Hawkins was the victim of their misdirected racist rage.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-23/
August 22, 1905: Whites Riot After Black Man Enters Pittsburgh Restaurant
On August 22, 1905, an African-American man named Charles Julius Miller and an unknown African-American woman entered Café Neapolitan, a Pittsburgh restaurant. The couple was immediately refused service and ordered to leave the restaurant. When Miller refused, a “free-for-all” ensued, leaving many injured and resulting in approximately fifty arrests.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-22/
August 21, 1831: Nat Turner Leads Enslaved Black People in Virginia Rebellion
An enslaved black man, Nat turner was very religious and ministered to fellow enslaved blacks as well as whites in Southampton, Virginia. Turner was passionate about studying the Bible and often claimed to have divine visions. In the late 1820s, he claimed to have visions believing that God was calling him to lead a rebellion. In February 1831, he witnessed a solar eclipse and took it as a sign to start his campaign. On August 13, 1831, Turner saw another eclipse and put his mind to begin the rebellion. On August 21, 1831, Turner led his followers to various plantations, recruiting other blacks. Turner’s crowd increased to 60 to 70 men armed with muskets and tools. They killed white plantation owners but let go of poor whites. Turner and his followers killed nearly 60 white people before they were captured and killed by a militia. A lot of his followers were killed and captured, but Turner managed to escape and remained at large until October 30, 1831. He was criminally convicted and executed along with 30 other African Americans. After the incident, angry white mobs tortured and murdered hundreds of blacks and Southern legislatures passed laws to prohibit blacks from assembling freely, conducting independent religious services, and gaining an education.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-21/
August 20, 1619: First Enslaved Africans Land in Jamestown, Virginia
The Africans who were sold in Virginia in 1619 had been taken from Angola in West Central Africa by Portuguese and Spanish slavers. They were captured in various wars and were forced to march 100-200 miles to the major slave-trade port of Luanda on the coast. From the port, they were put on board the San Juan Bautista to Vera Cruz. While in route, the ship was attacked by two English privateers, the White Lion and Treasurer, and robbed of 50-60 Africans. The White Lion arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia. A prominent planter and merchant reported that “20 and odd Negroes” were sold in exchange for food on the James River. The remaining Africans were transported to Jamestown and sold into slavery. The Treasurer arrived at Point Comfort a few days after the White Lion but quickly set sail for the English colony of Bermuda. Prior to leaving the port, however, about 7 to 9 Africans were possibly sold, including a woman named “Angelo” who was taken to Lieutenant William Pierce’s Jamestown property.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-20/
https://historicjamestowne.org/history/the-first-africans/
August 17, 1965: Days of Riots End in Watts
On August 11, 1965, a police officer pulled over brothers Marquette and Ronald Frye in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, CA. A crowd gathered to watch and more officers assembled as police started to question the two African American men. When the mother of the two arrived at the scene, police started to beat the brothers and all three Fryes were arrested. Outraged at the police brutality, the crowd started to throw rocks at police cars, then city buses and other motorists. This soon erupted into rioting throughout the 20-block area of Watts. This quickly grew into at least 5000 people participating in throwing bricks and other debris through store windows, at police cars and at white passersby in response to police brutality and government officials’ indifference. 400 police officers arrived at the scene. They exchanged gunfire with the young protesters and beat and arrested many of them but were unable to quell the unrest. After six days, the riot ended with 34 dead, 1032 injured, nearly 4000 arrested and $40 million in damage. Governor Pat Brown convened a commission to identify its roots and the commission released a report concluding that the riots were the culmination of Watts’ black residents’ long-felt dissatisfaction with high unemployment rates, poor housing, and inadequate schools. Despite these findings, almost nothing was done to address the inequalities or to rebuild Watts.
For more information, please see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-17/
August 16, 2006: Florida Attorney General Names Suspects in 55-Year-Old Civil Rights Murders
Harry and Harriette Moore were civil rights activists and teachers in Florida. They established the first Brevard County branch of the NAACP in 1934. Their work with the NAACP led to a lawsuit that gained equal pay for black teachers. In 1945, Harry Moore established the Florida Progressive Voters League. This helped register thousands of black voters in the state of Florida. In 1946, Harry Moore was appointed to be director of the Florida NAACP, and he called for investigations into several lynchings in the South. On December 25, 1951, a bomb exploded in the home of Florida residents Harry and Harriette Moore. The bombing resulted in the killing of this couple on their 25th wedding anniversary. Harry Moore’s mother and the couple’s daughter were asleep in adjoining rooms, but they were able to escape with minor injuries. This bombing was one of many in a series of bombings happening in Florida. During the series of bombings, African Americans, Jews, and Catholics were the primary people groups being targeted. The Moores’ deaths were among the first murders of prominent civil rights leaders during the civil rights era. This tragic incident sparked a number of meetings and protests throughout the nation. However, no arrests were made. Nearly 55 years later, on August 16, 2006, Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist announced that the state had enough evidence to conclude that KKK member, Earl Krooklyn, had recruited other Klan members and had used floor plans of the Moore home to plan and succeed in bombing their home. By 2006, all four suspects were already deceased.
For more information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-16/
http://www.pbs.org/harrymoore/harry/mbio.html
https://www.biography.com/people/harry-t-moore
https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/17/us/17florida.html
August 15, 1963: Virginia Teenagers Jailed For Protesting Segregated Public Education Nine Years After Brown v. Board of Education
On August 15, 1963, 32 teenagers who protested and challenged the Prince Edward County School Board’s refusal to integrate their public school system were released from jail. Prince Edward County had refused to cooperate with a federal appeals court’s order to desegregate its all-white public high school in compliance with the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1954 decision in Brown v. Board. The county officials refused to fund the local schools and became the only jurisdiction in the county without a public school system. In 1960, 40% of the population was African American, but all elected officials were white and African Americans had very limited political power. African Americans were also racially victimized because they earned less than half of their white counterparts, which led African Americans into poverty. As a result, the end of county public education disproportionately harmed black students. Many left the town to live with friends and family in other communities and attend school there; hundreds of others remained in the county without attending formal school. In June 1963, members of the NAACP in Prince Edward County organized a campaign to confront the racial discrimination in their education system. They planed peaceful demonstrations focused on the city’s business district, staging sit-ins, try-ins, and attempts to integrate churches that were often met with violence and arrests. The day before the teens were released, Governor Harrison announced the creation of the Prince Edward Country Free School Association, a nonprofit organization dedicated to creating an integrated school system in the county. It did not accomplish integrating education system, but did temporarily teach local black students. In May 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Prince Edward County’s discontinuation of public education was unconstitutional, and the schools reopened in September.
For more information, see:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-15/
August 14, 1908: Race Riot Erupts in Springfield, Illinois
A mob of white citizens got together at the local jail in Springfield, Illinois, where two black men were being held in custody. The two men were George Richardson, who was accused of raping a white woman, and Joe James, accused of raping a white woman and killing a white man. The mob’s intention was to lynch the two men, but a violent riot broke out when they learned that the two men had been transported to another city. Some people from the mob destroyed the business of Henry Loper, a man rumored to have helped transport Richardson and James. The rest of the mob attacked the police and militia at the jail believing that Richardson and James were still there. Later, the two groups rejoined and demolished homes and businesses of African Americans in Springfield, stole close to $150,000 worth of property, and set fire to whole blocks. The next morning, people woke up the to lynching of two African American men. Scott Burton was shot four times, dragged through the streets, then hung and mutilated until the militia interceded. William Donegan, an African American man who was married to a white woman, was taken from his home and hung from a tree across the street, where he was stabbed and his throat was cut. Mr. Donegan was still alive when militia arrived at the scene but died the next morning. Many African Americans fled the city out of terror and sought National Guard protection. Police arrested 150 people and 117 were indicted of participating in the violence. In September 1908, Nellie Hallam, the alleged rape victim of George Richardson, signed an affidavit stating that no black man had attacked her. She stated that the attacker was a white man, but refused to identify him. Joe James was convicted of murder and sentenced to death.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-14/
August 13, 1955: Voting Rights Activist Lamar Smith Murdered in Mississippi
Lamar Smith, a 63-year-old African American farmer and World War I veteran was shot and killed in front of the Lincoln County Courthouse in Brookhaven, Mississippi on the morning of August 13, 1955. He was encouraging African Americans to vote in a local run-off election at the time. Smith was known for encouraging African Americans to vote and was a voting rights advocate affiliated with the Regional Council of Negro Leadership. He was threatened and warned to stop advocating for African Americans voting rights, but he could not resist to fight for what was right. His murder was seen by dozens of witnesses including a sheriff who let one of the alleged assailants to leave the crime scene covered in blood. Days later, three white suspects were arrested including the guy who left the scene covered in blood. In September, a grand jury composed of 20 white men declined to indict the three suspects because witnesses failed to testify. This case ended up punishing no one for the crime. Smith’s death was one of many racially motivated killings in Mississippi.
For more information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-13/
August 9, 1961 - James B. Parsons Nominated First Black Federal Judge in U.S.
On August 9, 1961, President JFK nominated James Benton parsons as the United States District Court Judge for Northern Illinois. At that time, Judge Parsons was serving as a judge on the Superior Court of Cook County, Illinois. On August 30, 1961, the Senate confirmed Judge Parson's nomination, making him the first African American federal judge in the continental U.S. and the first African American federal judge with life tenure. Prior to his appointment, African Americans had been appointed solely to fixed judicial terms on the United States District Court for the Virgin Islands. Judge Parsons went on to accomplish many significant "firsts" within his position as a district court judge. On April 17, 1975, he became the first African American Chief Judge of a District Court. In May 1975, he was elected the first African American representative to the United States Judicial Conference. Later, in 1992, he retired from active trial duty after 30 years of service. He served the Northern District of Illinois until his death on June 19, 1993.
For more information about Judge James B. Parsons, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-09/
ballotpedia.org/James_B._Parsons
aaregistry.org/story/james-parsons-an-influential-judge/
August 5-6, 2014 - African American Workers Sue Memphis Cotton Gin for Racial Discrimination
After months of facing racial discrimination, harassment, and threats from a white supervisor, two African American workers at the Atkinson Cotton Warehouse (Mr. Harris and Mr. Mangrum) sought help. Their supervisor at the Memphis cotton gin branch refused for the men to drink from a "whites only" water fountain, referred to them using racial slurs, and threatened them with hanging. The discrimination occurred on a daily basis. African American employees were often referred to as "monkeys" and were told that they "needed to think like a white man." As the discrimination continued, Mr. Harris began to record the racist comments on his cell phone as proof of what was happening. Their workplace became so discriminatory that the men had a lot of fear going to work. The discrimination faced by the African American employees at Atkinson Cotton Warehouse was a reminder of the Jim Crow era, especially in the supervisor's support of segregation. When they reported this discrimination to their supervisors in early 2014, they were fired from their jobs. In June 2014, they began to take legal action by filing a federal complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). After the reports of discrimination became public, the warehouse owner claimed to have no knowledge about the situation and stated that warehouse management outsourced to another company. Federal Compress, the management company, later stated that the supervisor is no longer employed with them. However, on August 5, 2014, Harris, Mangrum, and another employee named Vashone Ford filed a federal lawsuit against the warehouse owners. They sought anti-discrimination training for all employees and a monitoring of the business environment.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-05/
www.cnn.com/2014/06/05/us/memphis-supervisor-racist-audio/index.html
August 3, 2018 Race Riots End in Chicago, Illinois, with 38
Dead During the Great Migration, Chicago was a popular destination for African Americans from the South to escape from racial violence and in search of economic opportunity. Chicago’s African American population went from 44,000 in 1910 to 109,000 in 1920. It wasn’t only African Americans who relocated to Chicago. Thousands of whites relocated to Chicago in search in work as well. Many African Americans settled next to European immigrants on the south side of Chicago, where many industrial jobs were available. African Americans still faced racial animosity due to overcrowding, employment disputes with whites, poor relations with police, and segregation initiating from custom rather than law. On July 27, 1919, one African American boy named Eugene Williams drowned at a Chicago beach after white man struck him with a rock for crossing into “white” side of the ocean. The police refused to arrest the white rock thrower and there were misunderstandings of each group as to what had happened at the beach. African Americans were furious at the racial injustice and it led to riots which ended August 3, 1919 by Governor Frank Lowden.
- Saehee Kwak
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-03/
August 2, 1900 - North Carolina Votes to Disenfranchise Black Residents
On August 2, 1900, white voters in North Carolina cast their ballots in favor of imposing the passing of a literacy test as a requirement to register to vote, with an exception for illiterate people with a relative who were registered to vote before 1863. This was to disenfranchise most of African-American voting population in the state to ensure white could rule the state even if they were illiterate. As it came closer to the election day, there were more and more campaign events encouraging white population to vote for disenfranchisement. The day before the election, William Guthrie, a former confederate officer and candidate for the state Supreme Court said, “The people of the east and west are coming together. The amendment will pass and the negro curbed in every part of the state. Good government will be restored everywhere. Then our ladies can walk the streets of our towns in safety, day or night. White women will not be afraid to go about alone in the country. We will teach the colored race that out people must be respected. We have restrained and conquered other races. They obeyed our demands or were exterminated with the sword. We are at a crisis. Let us rise to the occasion. Come together!” This campaign was also suppressed the African-American vote by stating “no negro must vote. All white men must vote.” The effect of disenfranchising African-American voters continued without federal interference until the Voting Rights Act became law in 1965.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-02/
August 1, 1944 - White Philadelphia Transit Workers Strike to Protest Promotion of African American Employees
As the United States entered into WWII, Philadelphia became one of America's biggest war production sources. About 600,000 workers relied on the Philadelphia Transportation Company for transportation to these war production factories. On August 1, 1944, white Philadelphia Transportation Company employees began to strike to protest the company's decision to promote 8 African American workers to the position of trolley driver. This position was previously reserved for white men. The 8 men were promoted after President FDR issued a couple executive orders. The orders 8802 and 9436 prohibited companies with government contracts from discrimination based on race or religion, forcing companies to include a nondiscrimination clause in their contracts. Several white Philadelphia Transportation employees led the strike, and they threatened to continue the strike until the 8 individuals promoted were demoted. The strike grew to include more than 6000 workers, crippling production and impacting the city. The strike prevented nearly 2 million people from traveling and cost businesses nearly $1 million per day. On the 3rd day of the strike, President FDR authorized the War Department to take control of the Public Transportation Company. Two days later, 5000 troops moved into Philadelphia to stop the uprising. Despite military presence, the strike sparked numerous acts of racial violence, including several shootings. After more than a week, the strike ended and the Philadelphia Transportation employees returned to work after being threatened with termination, loss of draft deferments, and ineligibility of unemployment. By September 1944, Philadelphia Transportation Company's first black trolley drivers were on duty.
For more information on this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/08-01/
July 2018
July 31, 1919 - White Mobs Set 30+ Fires in Chicago's Black Communities
On the morning of July 31, 1919, outraged white mobs started more than 30 fires in the African American residential areas of Chicago. These incidents were not isolated, but intentionally a part of extended barrage of violence perpetrated against the black community in Chicago. The violence that occurred in these communities in the summer of 1919, caused the season to be known as the "Red Summer." Leading up to the fires, there were riots that had broken out in the Chicago area after Eugene Williams, an African American teenager, drowned in Lake Michigan after being struck in the head by a rock thrown by an angry white man. The man had claimed that Williams and his friends had drifted to the "white side" of the beach. The responding police refused to arrest the white man who had thrown the rock, and instead arrested a black man at the scene. When African American onlookers complained about the incidents, they were met with violence, leading to widespread riots. When the riots ended on August 3, 1919, the gunfire, beatings, and fires had caused 23 African Americans and 15 white individuals to be killed, 537 people were injured, and over 1000 African American Families were homeless.
To read more about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-31/
July 30, 1866 - White Mob Attacks Black Individuals at Voting Rights Convention
Most cities in the South experienced a lot of turmoil and challenges after the Civil War. Because black citizens were gaining greater political and economic standing in states that were unwilling to grant it voluntarily, this was causing issues. The Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1864 had granted black people citizenship rights. However, the Convention still denied them the right to vote. In 1865, Louisiana along with several other Southern states began enacting "black codes" to disenfranchise black people. This caused many Radical Republicans, who supported full citizenship rights, to be outraged. On July 30, 1866, Radical Republicans in the state reconvened the Lousiana Constitutional Convention to try to seize control of the state government and decisions. The new Convention had many black supporters. The speakers encouraged African Americans to march upon the grounds of the Mechanics Institute to show their support with the Convention. After lunch on July 30, 1866, convention members leading the meeting were greeted by the marchers. Across the street, a group of white armed men gathered to confront both marchers and convention delegates. The white mob was convinced that the Radical Republicans sought to disenfranchise whites while enfranchising blacks. The mob attached both marchers and convention delegates, who were unprepared for the fight. Because of the violence, 38 individuals were killed and 100 marchers were injured.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-30/
July 27, 1919 - Death of African American Teenager Sparks Chicago Race Riot
On July 27, 1919, an African American teenager named Eugene Williams and four of his friends were swimming in Lake Michigan. They drifted towards the unofficial “whites-only” section of Lake Michigan. Infuriated at the violation, one white man threw stones and one of them struck Eugene’s head and Eugene lost consciousness and drowned. When police responded to the scene, they refused to arrest the white man. The racial tension grew exponentially. Whites were misinformed that a black teenager threw a rock which caused a white man to drown, while blacks were misinformed that the police did not allow swimmers from saving Eugene’s life. This incident led to riots in the streets of the Black Belt. Five days of racial hostility, 28 were dead, 500 were injured, and 1000 African American homes were burned to the ground. This was one of the worst riots in American History. It finally ended when Governor Frank Lowden ordered 6000 militia troops to end racism and police brutality.
- Saehee Kwak
July 26, 1948 - President Harry Truman Orders Integration of U.S. Armed Forces
Black soldiers worked under different conditions in the military. It was required that they wait four years before they could begin combat training, while it only took whites only a few months. Everything was delayed for blacks and it was clear that they were being discriminated against. At the end of World War II, black civil rights leaders pressured President Truman to solve this problem. They warned President Truman that he would lose black voter’s support in the upcoming 1948 election and Clark Clifford the president’s special counsel also warned President Truman. President Truman asked Congress to pass civil rights legislation, but it was ignored which put more pressure on President Truman to enact an executive order. He was hesitant until the Republican party declared its opposition to military segregation. On July 26, 1948, President Truman enacted Executive Order 9981, the integration of the United States armed forces and it marked the beginning of equal rights, opportunities, and promotions for minority troops in the military.
- Saehee Kwak
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-26/
July 25, 1890 - White Advocate of Black Voting Rights Marsh Cook, Murdered in Mississippi
After the last Union forces left Mississippi, state democrats began an ongoing campaign to restore white supremacist rule. African American’s citizenship and voting rights had been established by Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and were being threatened without federal protection. In 1890, Mississippi convened delegates to create a new state constitution. The primary goal of was to excluding African Americans electorate. During the summer of 1890, Marsh Cook, a white Republican and former candidate for Congress, campaigned for delegate position of Jasper County. He was an advocate of civil rights for African American citizens and he swore to oppose all attempts to create a state constitution that would limit African American’s voting rights. He also encouraged all African American people to stand up for what is right and fight for their rights. On July 25, 1890, he was found dead next to a church after giving a speech about upcoming convention. He was fatally struck by fifteen rounds of buckshot. No one was arrested or tried for the murder. The convention moved forward, and it resulted in a state constitution that required literacy tests and poll taxes that ultimately took away African American’s voting rights.
- Saehee Kwak
July 23, 1967 - The Detroit Uprising
In 1968, African Americans in major U.S. cities revolted after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. In the previous year, grievances related to police brutality and systematic exclusion from economic opportunities had already caused uprisings in a few major U.S. cities. Additionally, beginning during WWI-the end of the 1960s, racial terror lynchings took place in the South, forcing many African Africans from Southern states into urban ghettos in the North and West states. Because of racial suborindation and terror, about 6 million African Americans fled the South's racial caste system between 1910-1970. This caused Detroit to have a rising population of African American residents. By 1970, 43.7% of residents in Detroit were African American. Despite the number of African Americans in Detroit, they continually faced discrimination, segregation, and police brutality. In the summer of 1967, the increasing issues of discrimination and violence toward African Americans in North states caused uprisings in many cities. The largest of these rebellions in the summer of 1967 was in Detroit on July 23-27, 1967. After police had raided an after-hours club, looting and fires began to break out. Multiple law enforcement agencies were deployed and the National Guardsmen were called. On July 26, the police and National Guard raided a local motel looking for an alleged sniper. Even after finding a gun-free premises, they tortured the black men and women they found there. They also killed three African American teenagers. Even though two officers confessed, no one was ever convicted for the deaths of the young men. By the end of the uprising, 33 African American and 10 white individuals were killed, and most individuals were killed by law enforcement.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-23/
https://www.history.com/topics/1967-detroit-riots
https://www.britannica.com/event/Detroit-Riot-of-1967
July 19, 1919 - Washington, DC Race Riot
On this day in 1919, rumors were spreading among the white residents in Washington, DC. The rumors claims that a black man attempted sexual assault against a white sailor's wife. When the police released the suspect, white individuals across the city started to plan violent attacks against the black community. In the weeks leading up to the event, local white residents had become very angry due to numerous other sex crime allegations against black men in the area. So, on July 19, 1919, a mob of white men moved through the city to gather weapons and more individuals to be in their mob. The mob encountered a black man named Charles Ralls and they beat him severely. Then, they encountered 55-year-old George Montgomery and beat him badly. Montgomery suffered from a fractured skull in the beatings. As the mob continued, they gathered more civilians and military service members, and they violently harmed and killed members of the black community for several days. In the meantime, black citizens began to realize that the police were not going to protect them from these attacks. So, they began to fight on their own. Armed black groups began confronting the white mobs, leading to violent shootings and fights. After four days, federal troops came to stop the violence, ending the riot. By the end of the conflict, nine people were dead, 30 were severely injured, and 150 were beaten.
For additional information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-19/
http://www.blackpast.org/aah/washington-d-c-race-riot-1919
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/raceriot0301.htm
July 18, 2016 - Police Shoot Unarmed Therapist in North Miami, Florida
On July 18th, 2016, Charles Kinsey, a 47-year-old African American mental health therapist was shot by police in North Miami, Florida. After receiving a 911 call, police reported to a threatening suicide scene. At the scene, police encountered Mr. Kinsey and his patient, an autistic adult man. Mr. Kinsey was working to escort his patient and get out of the scene by taking him back to his group home. Unfortunately, his patient was holding a toy truck that the caller had mistaken for a gun. Mr. Kinsey tried to explain to police that he was a behavioral therapist and that his patient was not holding a gun, but the police reported that his patient was refusing to comply and insisted he was armed. To avoid any dangerous situations, Mr. Kinsey laid on the pavement with his hands in the air and continued to seek a safe resolution for officers and his patient. As Mr. Kinsey laid on the pavement, a police officer fired three rounds from his rifle, injuring Mr. Kinsey’s leg. The police department later claimed that the officer was aiming at Mr. Kinsey’s patient concerning Mr. Kinsey’s safety. However, Mr. Kinsey was handcuffed, turned onto his back, and left restrained and bleeding on the ground immediately after the shooting. When Mr. Kinsey ask the officer, “Sir, why did you shoot me?” the officer replied. “I don’t know.” On August 3rd, 2016, Mr. Kinsey filed a federal lawsuit against the officer, claiming a violation of his rights in the officer’s use of excessive force. However, prosecutors announced that the officers would not face any charges.
- Saehee Kwak
July 17, 2001 - Harvard University Study Reveals Resegregation of American Public Schools
On July 17, 2001, Harvard University’s Civil Rights Project published a study on the resegregation on school district. This study was done more than 45 years after the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education which declared legally-mandated racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. In the study, Dr. Gary Orfield, who was a professor of Education and Co-director of the Harvard Civil Rights Project assessed statistics from the 1998-1999 school year. He drew a conclusion that school districts across the country and particularly in the South were resegregating at an overwhelming rate. This study revealed that many Southern school districts were going back to the segregation level of the early 1970s. A series of Supreme Court cases in the early 1990s--Board of Education of Oklahoma City vs. Dowell (1991), Freeman v. Pitts (1992), and Missouri v. Jenkins (1995) – made it easier for the school districts to be released from federal desegregation orders and more difficult for desegregation orders to be reinstated. Therefore, the incapacitating efforts and weakening progress towards racial integration in public schools.
- Saehee Kwak
July 16, 1944 - African American Woman Arrested in Virginia for Refusal to Give Up Bus Seat
On July 16, 1944, Irene Morgan, 27-year-old African American woman, was traveling on an interstate Greyhound bus from Virginia to Baltimore. About thirty minutes after the bus departed, Morgan and the passenger sitting beside her were asked to give up their seats for a white couple who boarded the bus. When Morgan refused and advised the passenger beside her to do the same, the bus driver drove to Middlesex County Jail where a deputy sheriff went into the bus and presented her with a warrant for her arrest. Under the Virginia law in 1944, racial segregation was mandatory on state transportation. However, because Morgan was traveling on a Greyhound bus, she argued that she should not be removed from her seat. Morgan was dragged off the bus and was detained in the Saluda City Jail. Later, she was convicted of violating the state segregation law. In March 1946, Morgan and her lawyers appealed her conviction. Less than three months later, in Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, the court decided to reverse her conviction and held that the state segregation laws were unconstitutional as applied to interstate bus travel.
For additional information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-16/
July 13, 1863 - New York Draft Riots
Poor white laborers rioted in New York City against the Union draft that exempted African Americans and anyone else for $300 fee; rioters killed or injured 1000 people, most of them being African American.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-13/
July 12, 2012 - Report Indicates 1/13 African Americans of Voting Age are Disenfranchised
Felon disenfranchisement laws prohibit citizens who have been convicted of a felony to vote. 48 states and the District of Columbia disenfranchise people while they are in prison, on probation, or on parole, and eleven states continue to disenfranchise people even after they have finished their sentences. On July 12, 2012, The Sentencing Project reported that these laws significantly restrict people of color from voting. By December 31, 2010, it was estimated that 5.85 million Americans were ineligible to vote because of the disenfranchisement laws. 25% of these individuals were incarcerated in jail or prison. However, 75% of these individuals had returned home having successfully completed their sentences or were in their community by probation or parole. However, as a result of these laws, over 4 million Americans who are active in society were unable to vote. The disenfranchisement laws were found to heavily impact people of color. 1 out of 13 African Americans who are otherwise eligible citizens are unable to vote because of disenfranchisement. This means that in Florida, Kentucky, and Virginia, more than 20% of the voting-age African American population are unable to vote. Nearly 1 million African Americans remain disenfranchised even after serving their sentences and going back to their community. Despite these high numbers, felon disenfranchisement has continued because courts argue that sections of the Fourteenth Amendment support it.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-12/
July 11, 1905 - Niagara Movement Begins
On this day in 1905, the Niagara Movement began. Lasting for five years, the Niagara Movement was an organization of black intellectuals led by W.E.B. Du Bois. The group called for full political, civil, and social rights for African Americans. The movement began on July 11, 1905 by a secret meeting in Fort Erie, Ontario, near Niagara Falls. Twenty nine prominent African Americans who drew up plans in calling for full civil liberties, abolition of racial discrimination, and recognition of human brotherhood. Following the first meeting, there were annual meetings. There were thirty branches established from 1905-1910. However, due to a lack of funding and permanent staffing, the groups were unable to attract mass support. However, perhaps their greatest victory, was being the forerunner of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). After the Springfield Race Riot in 1908, white liberals joined with some of the individuals in the Niagara Movement, forming the NAACP the following year. Though the Niagara Movement ended in 1910, Du Bois continued to be very involved in leadership with the NAACP.
For additional information, please visit:
www.britannica.com/topic/Niagara-Movement
www.blackpast.org/aah/niagara-movement-1905-1909
www.history.com/topics/black-history/niagara-movement
July 9, 2013 - Center for Investigative Reporting Discovers Female Inmates Being Sterilized in CA Prisons Without Approval
In 2013, it was discovered that doctors who were under contract with the CA Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation had sterilized 150 female inmates (who had been incarcerated multiple times) from 2006-2010 without required approvals. At least 148 women received tubal ligations in violation of prison rules from 2006-2010. There were 100 more incidents of this found in state documents and interviews starting in the late 1990s. From 1997-2010, CA State paid doctors $147,460 to perform the procedures. In their investigation, they spoke with several former inmates who indicated that they overheard Prison Medical Staff asking inmates to agree to be sterilized. Some former inmates indicated that they felt pressured by medical staff to have the procedure. The procedures themselves were a part of a eugenics program, "that sought to prevent social ills by seeing that those who caused them were never born" (NPR). Through the interviews that took place afterwards, some former inmates indicated that they felt deeply troubled at the treatment they received. On September 26, 2014, California Governor Jerry Brown signed a bill banning prisons from sterilizing inmates without their consent. In addition, Senator Hannah-Beth Jackson gave a statement, "Pressuring a vulnerable population into making permanent reproductive choices without informed consent is unacceptable, and violates our most basic human rights" (NBC News).
For additional information, please visit:
www.revealnews.org/article/female-inmates-sterilized-in-california-prisons-without-approval/
www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/07/california-prisons-were-illegally-sterilizing-female-inmates/313591/
www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/07/09/200444613/californias-prison-sterilizations-reportedly-echoes-eugenics-era
www.nbcnews.com/health/womens-health/california-bans-sterilization-female-inmates-without-consent-n212256
July 5, 1935 - President FDR Signs National Labor Relations Act
Throughout the 1930s, white Southern politicians secured amendments excluding the majority of people of color from the benefits and protections of the New Deal legislation. Much of this legislation was built to benefit the middle class. When the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 was signed, President FDR claimed that signing the bill would "serve as an important step toward the achievement of just and peaceful labor relations in industry" (UPI). However, the white Southern politicians had a lot of weight in the decision. In the New Deal, the Southern congressmen prevented agricultural and domestic workers from Social Security. This meant that 60% of the African American workforce, including 85% of African American women and 75% of the Southern African American workforce were unable to receive Social Security benefits. Additionally, this 60% were unable to receive retirement benefits, welfare, and unemployment payments. In their majority leadership positions and veto power, Southern politicians did not allow farmworkers and domestic workers to experience protections of Labor Union laws that came about through the National Labor Relations Act while also removing any anti-discrimination language from social welfare programs. As a result of the effort of the white Southern politicians in the 1930s, the New Deal disproportionately benefited whites and largely excluded people of color, causing an impact on the United States today. Within the first decade of the Act being signed, there were hundreds of bills presented to amend or repeal the law. However, all of them failed or were vetoed until the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-05/
www.politico.com/story/2018/07/05/fdr-signs-national-labor-relations-act-july-5-1935-693625
www.upi.com/Archives/1935/07/05/President-signs-labor-bill/2141530490033/
July 2, 1777 - Vermont Abolishes Slavery
In January 1777, Vermont declared independence from New York. After declaring independence, the citizens of Vermont developed their own constitution. The declaration affirmed that all men were born free, no male over 21 or female over 18 should serve another as a servant, slave, or apprentice whether born in the United States or elsewhere. With Vermont's ratification of its constitution on July 2, 1777, they became the first state in America to make a change and abolish slavery.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-02/
www.famousdaily.com/history/vermont-first-american-territory-abolish-slavery.html
On the morning of July 31, 1919, outraged white mobs started more than 30 fires in the African American residential areas of Chicago. These incidents were not isolated, but intentionally a part of extended barrage of violence perpetrated against the black community in Chicago. The violence that occurred in these communities in the summer of 1919, caused the season to be known as the "Red Summer." Leading up to the fires, there were riots that had broken out in the Chicago area after Eugene Williams, an African American teenager, drowned in Lake Michigan after being struck in the head by a rock thrown by an angry white man. The man had claimed that Williams and his friends had drifted to the "white side" of the beach. The responding police refused to arrest the white man who had thrown the rock, and instead arrested a black man at the scene. When African American onlookers complained about the incidents, they were met with violence, leading to widespread riots. When the riots ended on August 3, 1919, the gunfire, beatings, and fires had caused 23 African Americans and 15 white individuals to be killed, 537 people were injured, and over 1000 African American Families were homeless.
To read more about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-31/
July 30, 1866 - White Mob Attacks Black Individuals at Voting Rights Convention
Most cities in the South experienced a lot of turmoil and challenges after the Civil War. Because black citizens were gaining greater political and economic standing in states that were unwilling to grant it voluntarily, this was causing issues. The Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1864 had granted black people citizenship rights. However, the Convention still denied them the right to vote. In 1865, Louisiana along with several other Southern states began enacting "black codes" to disenfranchise black people. This caused many Radical Republicans, who supported full citizenship rights, to be outraged. On July 30, 1866, Radical Republicans in the state reconvened the Lousiana Constitutional Convention to try to seize control of the state government and decisions. The new Convention had many black supporters. The speakers encouraged African Americans to march upon the grounds of the Mechanics Institute to show their support with the Convention. After lunch on July 30, 1866, convention members leading the meeting were greeted by the marchers. Across the street, a group of white armed men gathered to confront both marchers and convention delegates. The white mob was convinced that the Radical Republicans sought to disenfranchise whites while enfranchising blacks. The mob attached both marchers and convention delegates, who were unprepared for the fight. Because of the violence, 38 individuals were killed and 100 marchers were injured.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-30/
July 27, 1919 - Death of African American Teenager Sparks Chicago Race Riot
On July 27, 1919, an African American teenager named Eugene Williams and four of his friends were swimming in Lake Michigan. They drifted towards the unofficial “whites-only” section of Lake Michigan. Infuriated at the violation, one white man threw stones and one of them struck Eugene’s head and Eugene lost consciousness and drowned. When police responded to the scene, they refused to arrest the white man. The racial tension grew exponentially. Whites were misinformed that a black teenager threw a rock which caused a white man to drown, while blacks were misinformed that the police did not allow swimmers from saving Eugene’s life. This incident led to riots in the streets of the Black Belt. Five days of racial hostility, 28 were dead, 500 were injured, and 1000 African American homes were burned to the ground. This was one of the worst riots in American History. It finally ended when Governor Frank Lowden ordered 6000 militia troops to end racism and police brutality.
- Saehee Kwak
July 26, 1948 - President Harry Truman Orders Integration of U.S. Armed Forces
Black soldiers worked under different conditions in the military. It was required that they wait four years before they could begin combat training, while it only took whites only a few months. Everything was delayed for blacks and it was clear that they were being discriminated against. At the end of World War II, black civil rights leaders pressured President Truman to solve this problem. They warned President Truman that he would lose black voter’s support in the upcoming 1948 election and Clark Clifford the president’s special counsel also warned President Truman. President Truman asked Congress to pass civil rights legislation, but it was ignored which put more pressure on President Truman to enact an executive order. He was hesitant until the Republican party declared its opposition to military segregation. On July 26, 1948, President Truman enacted Executive Order 9981, the integration of the United States armed forces and it marked the beginning of equal rights, opportunities, and promotions for minority troops in the military.
- Saehee Kwak
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-26/
July 25, 1890 - White Advocate of Black Voting Rights Marsh Cook, Murdered in Mississippi
After the last Union forces left Mississippi, state democrats began an ongoing campaign to restore white supremacist rule. African American’s citizenship and voting rights had been established by Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and were being threatened without federal protection. In 1890, Mississippi convened delegates to create a new state constitution. The primary goal of was to excluding African Americans electorate. During the summer of 1890, Marsh Cook, a white Republican and former candidate for Congress, campaigned for delegate position of Jasper County. He was an advocate of civil rights for African American citizens and he swore to oppose all attempts to create a state constitution that would limit African American’s voting rights. He also encouraged all African American people to stand up for what is right and fight for their rights. On July 25, 1890, he was found dead next to a church after giving a speech about upcoming convention. He was fatally struck by fifteen rounds of buckshot. No one was arrested or tried for the murder. The convention moved forward, and it resulted in a state constitution that required literacy tests and poll taxes that ultimately took away African American’s voting rights.
- Saehee Kwak
July 23, 1967 - The Detroit Uprising
In 1968, African Americans in major U.S. cities revolted after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. In the previous year, grievances related to police brutality and systematic exclusion from economic opportunities had already caused uprisings in a few major U.S. cities. Additionally, beginning during WWI-the end of the 1960s, racial terror lynchings took place in the South, forcing many African Africans from Southern states into urban ghettos in the North and West states. Because of racial suborindation and terror, about 6 million African Americans fled the South's racial caste system between 1910-1970. This caused Detroit to have a rising population of African American residents. By 1970, 43.7% of residents in Detroit were African American. Despite the number of African Americans in Detroit, they continually faced discrimination, segregation, and police brutality. In the summer of 1967, the increasing issues of discrimination and violence toward African Americans in North states caused uprisings in many cities. The largest of these rebellions in the summer of 1967 was in Detroit on July 23-27, 1967. After police had raided an after-hours club, looting and fires began to break out. Multiple law enforcement agencies were deployed and the National Guardsmen were called. On July 26, the police and National Guard raided a local motel looking for an alleged sniper. Even after finding a gun-free premises, they tortured the black men and women they found there. They also killed three African American teenagers. Even though two officers confessed, no one was ever convicted for the deaths of the young men. By the end of the uprising, 33 African American and 10 white individuals were killed, and most individuals were killed by law enforcement.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-23/
https://www.history.com/topics/1967-detroit-riots
https://www.britannica.com/event/Detroit-Riot-of-1967
July 19, 1919 - Washington, DC Race Riot
On this day in 1919, rumors were spreading among the white residents in Washington, DC. The rumors claims that a black man attempted sexual assault against a white sailor's wife. When the police released the suspect, white individuals across the city started to plan violent attacks against the black community. In the weeks leading up to the event, local white residents had become very angry due to numerous other sex crime allegations against black men in the area. So, on July 19, 1919, a mob of white men moved through the city to gather weapons and more individuals to be in their mob. The mob encountered a black man named Charles Ralls and they beat him severely. Then, they encountered 55-year-old George Montgomery and beat him badly. Montgomery suffered from a fractured skull in the beatings. As the mob continued, they gathered more civilians and military service members, and they violently harmed and killed members of the black community for several days. In the meantime, black citizens began to realize that the police were not going to protect them from these attacks. So, they began to fight on their own. Armed black groups began confronting the white mobs, leading to violent shootings and fights. After four days, federal troops came to stop the violence, ending the riot. By the end of the conflict, nine people were dead, 30 were severely injured, and 150 were beaten.
For additional information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-19/
http://www.blackpast.org/aah/washington-d-c-race-riot-1919
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/raceriot0301.htm
July 18, 2016 - Police Shoot Unarmed Therapist in North Miami, Florida
On July 18th, 2016, Charles Kinsey, a 47-year-old African American mental health therapist was shot by police in North Miami, Florida. After receiving a 911 call, police reported to a threatening suicide scene. At the scene, police encountered Mr. Kinsey and his patient, an autistic adult man. Mr. Kinsey was working to escort his patient and get out of the scene by taking him back to his group home. Unfortunately, his patient was holding a toy truck that the caller had mistaken for a gun. Mr. Kinsey tried to explain to police that he was a behavioral therapist and that his patient was not holding a gun, but the police reported that his patient was refusing to comply and insisted he was armed. To avoid any dangerous situations, Mr. Kinsey laid on the pavement with his hands in the air and continued to seek a safe resolution for officers and his patient. As Mr. Kinsey laid on the pavement, a police officer fired three rounds from his rifle, injuring Mr. Kinsey’s leg. The police department later claimed that the officer was aiming at Mr. Kinsey’s patient concerning Mr. Kinsey’s safety. However, Mr. Kinsey was handcuffed, turned onto his back, and left restrained and bleeding on the ground immediately after the shooting. When Mr. Kinsey ask the officer, “Sir, why did you shoot me?” the officer replied. “I don’t know.” On August 3rd, 2016, Mr. Kinsey filed a federal lawsuit against the officer, claiming a violation of his rights in the officer’s use of excessive force. However, prosecutors announced that the officers would not face any charges.
- Saehee Kwak
July 17, 2001 - Harvard University Study Reveals Resegregation of American Public Schools
On July 17, 2001, Harvard University’s Civil Rights Project published a study on the resegregation on school district. This study was done more than 45 years after the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education which declared legally-mandated racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. In the study, Dr. Gary Orfield, who was a professor of Education and Co-director of the Harvard Civil Rights Project assessed statistics from the 1998-1999 school year. He drew a conclusion that school districts across the country and particularly in the South were resegregating at an overwhelming rate. This study revealed that many Southern school districts were going back to the segregation level of the early 1970s. A series of Supreme Court cases in the early 1990s--Board of Education of Oklahoma City vs. Dowell (1991), Freeman v. Pitts (1992), and Missouri v. Jenkins (1995) – made it easier for the school districts to be released from federal desegregation orders and more difficult for desegregation orders to be reinstated. Therefore, the incapacitating efforts and weakening progress towards racial integration in public schools.
- Saehee Kwak
July 16, 1944 - African American Woman Arrested in Virginia for Refusal to Give Up Bus Seat
On July 16, 1944, Irene Morgan, 27-year-old African American woman, was traveling on an interstate Greyhound bus from Virginia to Baltimore. About thirty minutes after the bus departed, Morgan and the passenger sitting beside her were asked to give up their seats for a white couple who boarded the bus. When Morgan refused and advised the passenger beside her to do the same, the bus driver drove to Middlesex County Jail where a deputy sheriff went into the bus and presented her with a warrant for her arrest. Under the Virginia law in 1944, racial segregation was mandatory on state transportation. However, because Morgan was traveling on a Greyhound bus, she argued that she should not be removed from her seat. Morgan was dragged off the bus and was detained in the Saluda City Jail. Later, she was convicted of violating the state segregation law. In March 1946, Morgan and her lawyers appealed her conviction. Less than three months later, in Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, the court decided to reverse her conviction and held that the state segregation laws were unconstitutional as applied to interstate bus travel.
For additional information about this day in history, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-16/
July 13, 1863 - New York Draft Riots
Poor white laborers rioted in New York City against the Union draft that exempted African Americans and anyone else for $300 fee; rioters killed or injured 1000 people, most of them being African American.
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-13/
July 12, 2012 - Report Indicates 1/13 African Americans of Voting Age are Disenfranchised
Felon disenfranchisement laws prohibit citizens who have been convicted of a felony to vote. 48 states and the District of Columbia disenfranchise people while they are in prison, on probation, or on parole, and eleven states continue to disenfranchise people even after they have finished their sentences. On July 12, 2012, The Sentencing Project reported that these laws significantly restrict people of color from voting. By December 31, 2010, it was estimated that 5.85 million Americans were ineligible to vote because of the disenfranchisement laws. 25% of these individuals were incarcerated in jail or prison. However, 75% of these individuals had returned home having successfully completed their sentences or were in their community by probation or parole. However, as a result of these laws, over 4 million Americans who are active in society were unable to vote. The disenfranchisement laws were found to heavily impact people of color. 1 out of 13 African Americans who are otherwise eligible citizens are unable to vote because of disenfranchisement. This means that in Florida, Kentucky, and Virginia, more than 20% of the voting-age African American population are unable to vote. Nearly 1 million African Americans remain disenfranchised even after serving their sentences and going back to their community. Despite these high numbers, felon disenfranchisement has continued because courts argue that sections of the Fourteenth Amendment support it.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-12/
July 11, 1905 - Niagara Movement Begins
On this day in 1905, the Niagara Movement began. Lasting for five years, the Niagara Movement was an organization of black intellectuals led by W.E.B. Du Bois. The group called for full political, civil, and social rights for African Americans. The movement began on July 11, 1905 by a secret meeting in Fort Erie, Ontario, near Niagara Falls. Twenty nine prominent African Americans who drew up plans in calling for full civil liberties, abolition of racial discrimination, and recognition of human brotherhood. Following the first meeting, there were annual meetings. There were thirty branches established from 1905-1910. However, due to a lack of funding and permanent staffing, the groups were unable to attract mass support. However, perhaps their greatest victory, was being the forerunner of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). After the Springfield Race Riot in 1908, white liberals joined with some of the individuals in the Niagara Movement, forming the NAACP the following year. Though the Niagara Movement ended in 1910, Du Bois continued to be very involved in leadership with the NAACP.
For additional information, please visit:
www.britannica.com/topic/Niagara-Movement
www.blackpast.org/aah/niagara-movement-1905-1909
www.history.com/topics/black-history/niagara-movement
July 9, 2013 - Center for Investigative Reporting Discovers Female Inmates Being Sterilized in CA Prisons Without Approval
In 2013, it was discovered that doctors who were under contract with the CA Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation had sterilized 150 female inmates (who had been incarcerated multiple times) from 2006-2010 without required approvals. At least 148 women received tubal ligations in violation of prison rules from 2006-2010. There were 100 more incidents of this found in state documents and interviews starting in the late 1990s. From 1997-2010, CA State paid doctors $147,460 to perform the procedures. In their investigation, they spoke with several former inmates who indicated that they overheard Prison Medical Staff asking inmates to agree to be sterilized. Some former inmates indicated that they felt pressured by medical staff to have the procedure. The procedures themselves were a part of a eugenics program, "that sought to prevent social ills by seeing that those who caused them were never born" (NPR). Through the interviews that took place afterwards, some former inmates indicated that they felt deeply troubled at the treatment they received. On September 26, 2014, California Governor Jerry Brown signed a bill banning prisons from sterilizing inmates without their consent. In addition, Senator Hannah-Beth Jackson gave a statement, "Pressuring a vulnerable population into making permanent reproductive choices without informed consent is unacceptable, and violates our most basic human rights" (NBC News).
For additional information, please visit:
www.revealnews.org/article/female-inmates-sterilized-in-california-prisons-without-approval/
www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/07/california-prisons-were-illegally-sterilizing-female-inmates/313591/
www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/07/09/200444613/californias-prison-sterilizations-reportedly-echoes-eugenics-era
www.nbcnews.com/health/womens-health/california-bans-sterilization-female-inmates-without-consent-n212256
July 5, 1935 - President FDR Signs National Labor Relations Act
Throughout the 1930s, white Southern politicians secured amendments excluding the majority of people of color from the benefits and protections of the New Deal legislation. Much of this legislation was built to benefit the middle class. When the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 was signed, President FDR claimed that signing the bill would "serve as an important step toward the achievement of just and peaceful labor relations in industry" (UPI). However, the white Southern politicians had a lot of weight in the decision. In the New Deal, the Southern congressmen prevented agricultural and domestic workers from Social Security. This meant that 60% of the African American workforce, including 85% of African American women and 75% of the Southern African American workforce were unable to receive Social Security benefits. Additionally, this 60% were unable to receive retirement benefits, welfare, and unemployment payments. In their majority leadership positions and veto power, Southern politicians did not allow farmworkers and domestic workers to experience protections of Labor Union laws that came about through the National Labor Relations Act while also removing any anti-discrimination language from social welfare programs. As a result of the effort of the white Southern politicians in the 1930s, the New Deal disproportionately benefited whites and largely excluded people of color, causing an impact on the United States today. Within the first decade of the Act being signed, there were hundreds of bills presented to amend or repeal the law. However, all of them failed or were vetoed until the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-05/
www.politico.com/story/2018/07/05/fdr-signs-national-labor-relations-act-july-5-1935-693625
www.upi.com/Archives/1935/07/05/President-signs-labor-bill/2141530490033/
July 2, 1777 - Vermont Abolishes Slavery
In January 1777, Vermont declared independence from New York. After declaring independence, the citizens of Vermont developed their own constitution. The declaration affirmed that all men were born free, no male over 21 or female over 18 should serve another as a servant, slave, or apprentice whether born in the United States or elsewhere. With Vermont's ratification of its constitution on July 2, 1777, they became the first state in America to make a change and abolish slavery.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/07-02/
www.famousdaily.com/history/vermont-first-american-territory-abolish-slavery.html
June 2018
June 29, 1958 - Bethel Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, pastored by Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, is Bombed
On this day the Bethel Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, was spared when a bomb was detected prior to its detonation and placed in a nearby parking lot. This church fought for integration and was subsequently the target of three violent attacks. On this day, we remember those who suffered in the name of integration and those lives who were spared because of the diligence of the activists who discovered the bomb, just in time.
For additional information, please visit:
https://www.workers.org/2011/us/shuttlesworth_1020/
https://civilrightstrail.com/experience/return-to-the-scenes-of-the-crime/
https://www.birminghamtimes.com/2017/02/despite-bombings-bethel-baptist-church-never-missed-a-service-and-played-pivotal-role-in-history/
June 22, 1961 - Interfaith Riders and Activists Face Trial for Attempting to Integrate Tallahassee Airport's Segregated Restaurant
On June 13, 1961, an interracial group of 18 rabbis and ministers participated in a freedom ride to Tallahassee. The freedom ride was sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality. Along the way, the riders experienced some confrontations. However, they were spared major violence due to Florida’s governor’s negotiations with local officials to ensure the riders were left alone while they were in the state. On June 15, the rabbis and ministers were scheduled to board an airplane to return to Washington D.C. When they were at the airport the interfaith riders and local activists attempted to integrate the Tallahassee Airport’s segregated restaurant. The restaurant closed to avoid serving them. Ten interfaith riders and three local activists stayed at the airport, demanding service throughout the night and the next day. However, on June 16, the group was arrested and charged with unlawful assembly. On June 22, 1961, the group went to trial. Judge John Rudd acquitted the local activists of the unlawful assembly charge. The ten interfaith riders were convicted and sentenced to 30 days in jail or a $500 fine. When the riders appealed to the US Supreme Court, they were denied relief. In August 1964, the riders went back to Tallahassee to serve their jail sentences. After released from jail, the riders enjoyed a meal at the airport restaurant which had been desegregated by federal order just a few months after their convictions.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-22/
www.floridamemory.com/items/show/267343
June 21, 1915 - Guinn v. United States
The Guinn v. United States ruling stated that the “Grandfather Clause” enacted by the Oklahoma State Legislature was invalid because it violated the Constitution’s Fifteenth Amendment. The Fifteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, the last of three post-Civil War Amendments ratified to end slavery, endowed the rights of citizenship and the right to vote on freed African American slaves. The Amendment declared that the rights of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridges because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. After the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment and during the post-Reconstruction era, “Grandfather Clauses” were enacted by Southern states to limit black voting. These clauses were explicitly designed to discriminate against potential black voters. The “Grandfather Clause” forced African American men to take a literacy test in order to register to vote. If they had an inability to read and write, they could not vote. In addition, there were requirements for people to pay poll taxes or there were residency/property restrictions in order to register to vote. This prevented many former slaves from the ability to vote. On June 21, 1915, the Court decided that States had rights to determine qualifications for votes as long as they did not violate the Constitution.
For additional information, please visit:
www.blackpast.org/aah/guinn-v-united-states-1915
www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/238/347#
June 20, 1940 - NAACP Leader Elbert Williams Lynched in Tennessee
In 1940, about 75% of people living in Brownsville, Tennessee were African American. However, since 1884, they were prevented from voting in Brownsville. In May 1940, members of the local NAACP organized a voting rights drive in an effort to get African Americans the chance to vote. One month later, on June 20, NAACP leader Elbert Williams was taken from his home by a group of white men. The group was headed by the local sheriff and the night guard. Three days later, Williams' body was found in the Hatchie River. The body had clearly been brutalized and beaten severely before Williams had died. He was only 31 years old when he was killed. A few days earlier, another NAACP leader in the area, Elisha Davis, had suffered similar events. Following Williams' death, there were two other African American men who were beaten to death after being arrested by the same night guard who had participated in the abduction and killing of Williams and Davis. After the lynching of Williams, up to forty families were permanently driven from the community because of threats of violence from the white mob. Those who did remain were prohibited from meeting in groups, even for church services. Despite numerous investigations being launched, there were never charges against the well-known men responsible for these killings. As a result of the harassment, violence, and murder that the NAACP in Brownsville faced, their group dissolved in 1940. A new chapter of the NAACP in Brownsville did not begin until 1961.
For more information about this day in history, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-20/
www.blackpast.org/aah/williams-elbert-1908-1940
June 18, 2015 - Charleston, South Carolina Church Shooting
On June 18, 2015, the Nation was informed of a tragic event that happened the night before. On the evening of June 17, 2015, 21-year-old Dylann Roof went to Emanuel A.M.E. Church in Charleston, South Carolina. He sat in on a Bible study for an hour. All of the participants, with the exception of Roof, were black. After being present at the Church for an hour, Roof open fired on the individuals there. Nine victims were killed in the shooting, only five people survived. Roof had expressed many racist views on the internet and in conversations with friends. He hoped that his actions in Charleston would begin a "race war." The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is one of the largest black congregations in the South. However, because of this, it is also a congregation that has endured much since its founding in 1816. Sadly, Roof's actions are one of many traumatic events that the Emanuel A.M.E. congregation has faced throughout their history. In his closing argument at the trial in 2017, Roof showed no remorse for his actions. The jury delivered a unanimous vote for the death penalty in the 2017 trial.
For additional information, please visit:
www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/06/18/482499865/my-big-sister-was-gunned-down-in-charleston-one-year-ago
www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/charleston-church-shooter-i-would-like-to-make-it-crystal-clear-i-do-not-regret-what-i-did/2017/01/04/05b0061e-d1da-11e6-a783-cd3fa950f2fd_story.html?utm_term=.2d4a39124fd7
time.com/time-magazine-charleston-shooting-cover-story/
www.cnn.com/2017/01/11/us/dylann-roof-sentencing/index.html
June 15, 1920 - Three African American Men Lynched in Minnesota
On this day in 1920, the African American population in Duluth, Minnesota was small. Out of 98,000 residents, only 495 individuals were people of color. Despite the small numbers of African Americans in Duluth, they faced significant discrimination and mistreatment. They received lower pay, were not allowed in white neighborhoods, lived in poor housing, and felt threatened. Racial tension was high. On June 14, 1920, two white teenagers, James Sullivan and Irene Tuskan, attended the John Robinson Circus in Duluth. The next morning, they claimed that Mr. Sullivan was held at gunpoint while 6 African American circus employees raped Ms. Tuskan. The doctors found no evidence of the alleged assault, and the African American men were arrested and jailed. Rumors quickly spread that Ms. Tuskan died from the alleged assault. So, on the evening of June 15, 1920, a mob of more than 5,000 white individuals gathered at the jail. They seized, beat, and lynched three of the men. The National Guard arrived the next morning to guard the surviving prisoners. However, no one was ever convicted for the lynchings.
For additional information, please visit:
www.mnhs.org/duluthlynchings/lynchings.php
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-15/
June 14, 1993 - President Clinton Nominates Ruth Bader Ginsburg for the Supreme Court
On June 14, 1993, President Bill Clinton nominated Ruth Bader Ginsburg for the Supreme Court. She became the second woman to serve on the Court, following the appointment of Sandra Day O’Connor. Previously, Ginsburg was the director of the ACLU’s Women’s Rights Project. She was influential in bringing up issues of women’s rights before the Court as director, specifically fighting on six landmark cases. She continued to fight for women’s rights on the Supreme Court, highlighted by her many victories in the Court and her awarding of the American Bar Association’s Thurgood Marshall Award for her contributions to gender equality and civil rights. Ginsburg was also instrumental in the ruling of Obergefell v. Hodges which made same sex marriage legal in all 50 states.
For additional information, please visit:
http://www.biography.com/people/ruth-bader-ginsburg-9312041
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=46684
June 13, 2005 - U.S. Senate Formally Gives an Apology for Failure to Pass Anti-Lynching Bills
Between the years of 1882 and 1968, there were 4,742 documented lynchings that took place in America. Of the victims, nearly 75% were people of color. These violent, horrible acts were intended to warn African Americans not to "transgress racialized social, political, and economic boundaries" (Racial Injustice). The victims often suffered heinous deaths as a community-wide scene. During this time, seven different U.S. Presidents exhorted Congress to pass legislation authorizing federal prosecution of the mobs doing these acts. Two hundred different anti-lynching bills were presented to Congress... only three passed in the House of Representatives, and zero passed in the Senate. The lack of bills passed was due to Southern conservative presence in the decisions. Thus, because of the lack of laws passed, lynchings continued on for decades. On this day in 2005, the U.S. Senate finally formally apologized for their failings to pass anti-lynching laws and legislation. Various resolution sponsors expressed their regrets while acknowledging the truth about that occurred in those decades of history. Hundreds of families of victims of lynchings were present at the apology, including the only survivor of a lynching attempt in 1930 in Marion, Indiana. In the formal apology, Senator Mary Landrieu of Louisiana stated, "'There may be no other injustice in American history for which the Senate so uniquely bears responsibility'" (Washington Post).
For additional information, please visit:
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-13/
https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4701576
www.nytimes.com/2005/06/14/politics/senate-issues-apology-over-failure-on-lynching-law.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/13/AR2005061301720.html
June 12, 1967 - U.S. Supreme Court Unanimously Rules in Favor of Lovings
In 1958, after their wedding in Washington, D.C., Richard and Mildred Loving returned to their home in Caroline County, Virginia. Soon after they arrived in Virginia, the couple was arrested and charged with felony offenses for being married to one another. With Richard being white and Mildred being black, their interracial marriage was illegal under Virginia law. In facing prison time, the Lovings pleaded guilty to the charges, received a suspended sentence, and were ordered to leave Virginia for 25 years.
In 1964, the Lovings challenged the court after they were arrested for visiting family in Virginia. They did not win in Virginia State Courts. However, they went to the U.S. Supreme Court with their case. On June 12, 1967, the Court unanimously ruled in favor of the Lovings, declaring that interracial marriage bans were unconstitutional also ruling against 18 state laws in Virginia rooted in racism.
For additional information, please visit:
https://www.aclu.org/issues/racial-justice/loving
https://www.history.com/topics/loving-v-virginia
June 11, 1966 - Individuals Participate in NAACP's March Against Steel Employment Discrimination
In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed and it prohibited discrimination in places of employment based on race, sex, religion, and citizenship. However, African Americans were continually being mistreated in their workplaces. They were given low-wage jobs and many had jobs that did not require skills. Some businesses refused to train or promote their African American employees, which meant that only white employees could become supervisors and attain higher up positions. In 1966, the NAACP in Birmingham and Pittsburgh organized some peaceful protests directed toward the U.S. Steel Corporation as a way to bring awareness about the Civil Rights Act and their mistreatment of African American employees. After no change occurred, on June 11, 1966, dozens of individuals participated in an NAACP march in Birmingham demanding that change happen in the U.S. Steel Corporation and their treatment of African Americans. The NAACP filed 200 complaints with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission on behalf of the African American employees at the Steel Corporation. These complaints indicated that the U.S. Steel Corporation had an unfair hiring practice, unequal promotion opportunities, and racial discrimination. Leaders of the NAACP argued that the U.S. Steel Corporation's discrimination against African American employees was having an impact on the poverty of families, causing many African Americans to face unemployment or devastation due to low-wage jobs. Sadly, African American unemployment rates have consistently been twice as high as that of white individuals in America since this time. Additionally, the wealth of white families is 6x more common that that of African American and Hispanic families in America still today. The NAACP has made great efforts. However, sadly racial discrimination in the workplace is still something that many people of color face on a daily basis in America.
June 8, 1966 - Klansman Indicted for 30-Year-Old Murder
On June 8, 2016, the grand jury decided to not indict Officer Brian Miller for shooting and killing Christian Taylor on August 7, 2015. Taylor was a 19-year-old African American man and was a student at Angelo State University in Texas. On the night he was killed, Officer Miller claimed they arrived at a local car dealership in response to reports of a burglary. When they arrived, they saw Taylor vandalizing cars via surveillance video. When the officers went onto the scene, neither of them were wearing body camera. After the officer with Miller attempted to taser unarmed Taylor, Officer Miller shot Taylor several times. According to the Police Chief, Taylor never made physical contact with the officers. However, he was killed on the spot. This day in history marks the moment where the court voted not to formally accuse Officer Miller of a crime. He was fired from "inappropriate judgment," but he was not charged with the murder of Christian Taylor.
June 7, 1920 - Ku Klux Klan Forms Publicity Campaign to Attract New Members
In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan was formed in Tennessee. Their goal was to undermine the Reconstruction and restore racial subordination in America. They did this through threatening, beating, and murdering many freedmen and politicians. Though the Klan dissolved in the 1870s due to federal oppression, they reemerged early in the 1900s. William Simmons revived the Klan in 1915 in Georgia. On June 7, 1920, William Simmons hired publicists to do a campaign about the Klan. His campaign argued that being a part of the Klan was "100 Percent Americanism." He promoted that the Klan defended the nation from people of color, Catholics, Jews, and people who were "moral offenders." As the news spread, within 16 months after the campaign began, 100,000 new members had joined. It wasn't until Congress was under public pressure that they began to investigate the amount of Klan violence in 1921. However, after the Klan denied the allegations against them, Congress ended their questioning. Soon after, membership increased to 5,000 every day. Meaning, in 1924, there were nearly four million members of the Klan throughout the nation. Because of Simmons publicity campaign beginning on June 7, 1920, countless people have lost their lives, been brutally treated, and fearful by the threats and violent actions of the millions of individuals involved in the Klan.
For additional information, please visit:
racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-07/
blackthen.com/june-7-1920-ku-klux-klan-mounts-publicity-campaign-to-attract-members-video/
www.history.com/topics/ku-klux-klan
June 6, 1916 - East Cleveland Gives Women the Right to Vote
On this day in history, East Cleveland became the first city east of the Mississippi River to grant women the right to vote in municipal elections. The vote for women's suffrage in East Cleveland won: 936 to 508 votes. Not only did the vote for women's suffrage win, but there was a 10,000 person parade and several other pushes for women's right to vote, leading East Cleveland to initiate the vote. This city granted women the right to vote a few years before the 19th Amendment passed in 1920.
For more information, please visit:
https://www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2016/06/100_years_ago_today_east_cleve.html
June 5, 1966 - James Meredith's March Against Fear
After being admitted to the University of Mississippi, James Meredith started the March Against Fear, a 220 mile walk from Memphis to Jackson, to demonstrate against the pervasive racism and encourage African Americans to vote. On the following day, June 6, 1966, Meredith was shot three times by a white man. Meredith was taken to the hospital and recovered. Upon hearing news of the shooting, other civil rights activists and leaders continued his march. On June 25, 1966, almost 20,000 marchers joined the demonstration in Jackson. Please honor Mr. Meredith by taking the time to register to vote and/or ask a loved one to do the same.
- Karly Clendenen
For more information about Mr. Meredith and the March Against Fear, please see the following:
https://www.colby.edu/magazine/remembering-the-march-against-fear/
https://racialinjustice.eji.org/timeline/06-06/
June 4, 1965 - President L.B. Johnson Delivers Commencement Address at Howard University "To Fulfill These Rights"
President Johnson's Commencement speech, at Howard University, discussed the causes of inequality and endless obstacles African American citizens faced while trying to compete in a market plagued by oppression and racism. Johnson's speech provided the philosophical groundwork for Affirmative Action, and the justification for implementing equity-based programs, to provide access to equal opportunity.
- Karly Clendenen
June 1964 - King's book Why We Cant Wait is published
May 2018
May 31, 1955 - Brown II Is Issued "With all Deliberate Speed"
After the Brown v. Board opinion was released, communities remained unmoved. In Brown II, the Court (passively) mandated State and local government action to desegregate schools "with all deliberate speed." On it's face, the opinion seemed to require immediate action, however in practice, it omitted a plan for implementation of monumental change. As our schools remain segregated, after 63 years, we still wait to see what "all deliberate speed" means.
- Karly Clendenen
May 30, 1943 - Happy Birthday to Civil Rights Activist James Chaney
James Chaney was a Civil Rights activist who was murdered by the KKK in 1964. Chaney worked to create freedom schools, was a Freedom Rider and member of the Congress for Racial Equality. His loved ones and community carry the generational trauma, for the senseless murder of such a strong and ambitious man. May Mr. Chaney rest in Power, where he is never forgotten.
- Karly Clendenen
For more information about Chaney's life and impact of his death, please see the following:
https://www.biography.com/people/james-chaney
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-lasting-impact-of-a-civil-rights-icons-murder-92172099/
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/slain-civil-rights-workers-found
May 29, 1973 - Thomas Bradley Elected as First Black Mayor of LA
Thomas Bradley was the first Black Mayor for LA and was the longest standing mayor, holding office for two formative decades.
- Karly Clendenen
For additional information about Mr. Bradley and his time in office, we encourage you to visit the following websites:
https://www.kcet.org/kcet-50th-anniversary/may-1973-tom-bradley-elected-la-mayor-1st-black-mayor-of-a-major-us-city
http://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-tom-bradley-19980930-story.html
May 24, 1856 - The Pottawatomie Massacre
On this day in 1856, Abolitionist John Brown and his associates killed five proslavery men at Pottawatomie Creek in Kansas. Today, this event is known as the Pottawatomie Massacre. Brown was anti-slavery and decided to fight for the freedom of slaves. He was driven by his human sympathy, religious beliefs, and anger toward the nation's actions toward people of color. Brown had previously become enraged by the slavery happening in his town and by the defeat of an anti-slavery town several days before. Brown was outraged by the attack on Sumner. He was angry by Kansas deciding that the choice of having slaves would be left to the settlers. Ultimately, Brown decided that enough was enough. He could not stand to see people enslaved anymore. Thus, taking matters into his own hands, he led the Pottawatomie Massacre of 1856. His actions began the era of "Bleeding Kansas" and it was considered to be one of the leading incidents that began the Civil War. When he was captured and tried for treason in 1859, his death caused many abolitionists to consider him a trail-blazer and a martyr for the sake of freedom.
For additional information about the Pottawatomie Massacre, we encourage you to visit the following websites:
https://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/pottawatomie-creek-massacre
https://www.history.com/topics/john-brown
http://www.civilwaronthewesternborder.org/encyclopedia/pottawatomie-massacre
May 23, 1796 - Reward Offered for President Washington's Runaway Slave
On this day in 1796, Ona Judge, an African American woman, ran away from the slavery she was facing in the President's household. After successfully escaping, President Washington put an advertisement in the local newspaper asking for people to look for Ms. Judge, offering a reward for whoever returned her to his household. He viewed her as his property that must be found and returned to him. The first president of the United States had slaves in his home, and he is one of many in early America who lived in this way. The culture of treating people of color poorly started at the very beginning, and is continuing today.
May 21, 1961 - Freedom Riders were threatened by National Guard
On this day, the Freedom Riders arrived in Montgomery, Alabama and were attacked by a white mob. Later that night, another mob waited outside a church and vandalized vehicles during a service where over 1,000 civil rights leaders and Martin Luther King, Jr. were attending in Montgomery. The situation highly escalated when Dr. King called the United States Attorney General for help. This was just one of many instances where the Freedom Riders would experience resistance and mistreatment.
May 18, 1896 - Plessy v. Ferguson turns 120
Today Marks 122 years since the Plessy v. Ferguson opinion was delivered by Justice Brown, accompanied by a powerful dissent by Justice Harlan.
Plessy serves as a great reminder of the distinctions and loopholes Courts may carve into doctrine intended to forge an equal future for all. Instead of fitting racist norms, and practices, into the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, the Court needed to reevaluate those norms in light of the shift mandated by the Fourteenth Amendment, over 30 years prior.
Laws and structural change should not be contingent on the comfort of the majority. For example, in deciding whether all aspects of society may be segregated, based on a fantasy that separate can be equal, the comfort of white train passengers should not have been a focus of the Justices. The Court's fear, seen throughout Plessy, emboldened and endorsed the Jim Crow Laws and practices.
If Courts are to uphold the law, especially in the wake of reform, they must focus on the big picture, stand strong in the face of uncomfortability, and act on behalf of all - including those who do not look like them.
- Karly Clendenen
May 17, 1954 - The New Separate and Unequal
64 years ago the U.S. Supreme Court rendered the decision of Brown v. Board of Education.
Brown v. Board was a monumental opinion issued by the Supreme Court that was intended, by many, to reform our educational system and ultimately lead to desegregation of our country. While we are in a better place than we were in 1954, the pervasiveness of separation and segregation remains.
Segregation is a beast that must be fed, nurtured, and maintained. For a modern example, please see this short article and video about wealthy white Manhattan parents reacting to integration policies in their neighborhood.
- Karly Clendenen
May 16, 1961 - Freedom Riders beaten, bus burned
